{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T03:22:18Z","timestamp":1785900138736,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Drug Regulatory Science","award":["2025SKLDRS0309"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025SKLDRS0309"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011791","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BK20220492"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20220492"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011791","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Polysaccharide-based hydrogels for gastric retention face the inherent challenge of achieving effective retention through swelling while avoiding mechanical failure. Here, we introduce a strategy by incorporating curdlan into chitosan\/sodium polyacrylate interpenetrating networks to reinforce the hydrogel and regulate swelling-induced transport behavior. Curdlan-reinforced chitosan\/polyacrylate (CS\/CUR\/PAAS) hydrogels with varying curdlan content (0\u20134 wt.%) were synthesized and characterized. Optimal reinforcement was achieved with 2 wt.% curdlan, yielding an indentation hardness of ~80 kPa and an elastic modulus of ~63 kPa without compromising swelling capacity. Under acidic conditions (pH 1.2), the hydrogel swelled rapidly (~50-fold at 3 h; ~140-fold at 8 h) while maintaining structural integrity. Using a dynamic in vitro human stomach simulator (DHSI-IV), the optimized hydrogel demonstrated gastric retention for up to 5 h, with ~60% of the initial mass retained at 6 h. Metformin hydrochloride release followed diffusion-controlled kinetics (~69% over 8 h), governed primarily by pH with secondary shear modulation. Microstructural and rheological analyses revealed that acidic conditions regulated network expansion, viscoelastic relaxation, and pore formation, which in turn controlled transport pathways and drug release. The findings highlight that curdlan reinforcement stabilizes swelling behavior under acidic conditions, offering a robust and pH-responsive strategy for designing mechanically stable, gastric-retentive hydrogels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12050378","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T12:20:25Z","timestamp":1777551625000},"page":"378","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Curdlan-Reinforced Chitosan\/Polyacrylate Interpenetrating Hydrogels with Enhanced Mechanical Stability for Gastric Retention and pH-Responsive Drug Release"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Yuzhong","family":"Feng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3339-4179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peng","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ping","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9149-0620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ni","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ke","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen X-Institute, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuye","family":"Qi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 102629, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaodong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Quality Engineering Interest Group, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"},{"name":"Institute of Biopharmaceutical and Health Engineering (iBHE), Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2022.10.004","article-title":"Recent Applications of Hydrogels in Food Safety Sensing: Role of Hydrogels","volume":"129","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101786","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmt.2023.101786","article-title":"Edible Hydrogels with Shrinkage Tolerance in Acids and Stomach-Friendly Mechanical Moduli","volume":"32","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Mater. Today"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rehman, S., Jamil, Q.A., Noreen, S., Ashraf, M.A., Madni, A., Mahmood, H., Shoukat, H., and Raza, M.R. (2024). Preparation and Evaluation of Ph-Sensitive Chitosan\/Alginate Nanohybrid Mucoadhesive Hydrogel Beads: An Effective Approach to a Gastro-Retentive Drug Delivery System. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16111451"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2022.109816","article-title":"Gastric Fluid-Induced Double Network Hydrogel with High Swelling Ratio and Long-Term Mechanical Stability","volume":"236","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compos. Part B"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goglia, U., Hasballa, I., Teti, C., Boschetti, M., Ferone, D., and Albertelli, M. (2024). Ianus Bifrons: The Two Faces of Metformin. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16071287"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.07.085","article-title":"A Preclinical Overview of Metformin for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"106","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.12755","article-title":"Effects of Dosage and Dosing Frequency on the Efficacy and Safety of High-Dose Metformin in Japanese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"9","author":"Kanto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Investig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1007\/s11892-024-01539-1","article-title":"Metformin: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"24","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Diabetes Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10228","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-60456-1","article-title":"Fabrication and Characterization of a New Eco-Friendly Sulfonamide-Chitosan Derivative with Enhanced Antimicrobial and Selective Cytotoxicity Properties","volume":"14","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17162","DOI":"10.1039\/C8NJ03482F","article-title":"The Chitosan Hydrogels: From Structure to Function","volume":"42","author":"Fu","year":"2018","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2024.121926","article-title":"Chitosan Interaction with Stomach Mucin Layer to Enhances Gastric Retention and Mucoadhesive Properties","volume":"333","author":"Ahmad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s40005-016-0229-0","article-title":"Development and Statistical Optimization of Chitosan and Eudragit Based Gastroretentive Controlled Release Multiparticulate System for Bioavailability Enhancement of Metformin HCl","volume":"46","author":"Sahu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Investig."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aranaz, I., Alc\u00e1ntara, A.R., Civera, M.C., Arias, C., Elorza, B., Caballero, A.H., and Acosta, N. (2021). Chitosan: An Overview of Its Properties and Applications. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13193256"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nabrdalik, K., Hendel, M., Irlik, K., Kwiendacz, H., \u0141oniewski, I., Bucci, T., Alam, U., Lip, G.Y.H., Gumprecht, J., and Skonieczna-\u017bydecka, K. (2024). Gastrointestinal Adverse Events of Metformin Treatment in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Meta-Regression of Observational Studies. BMC Endocr. Disord., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12902-024-01727-w"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2019.11.092","article-title":"Biocompatible and Biodegradable Chitosan\/Sodium Polyacrylate Polyelectrolyte Complex Hydrogels with Smart Responsiveness","volume":"155","author":"He","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2025.111654","article-title":"Ph-Sensitive, Edible Chitosan-Based Hydrogels with Extremely High Swelling and Reinforced Mechanics: A Chemical-Free Crosslinking Strategy for Gastric Retention","volume":"169","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2017.03.018","article-title":"Investigation on Curdlan Dissociation by Heating in Water","volume":"70","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2024.110335","article-title":"Self-Assembly of Curdlan Molecules for the Formation of Thermally Induced Gels","volume":"156","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.11.108","article-title":"Impact of Heating and Drying Temperatures on the Properties of Konjac Glucomannan\/Curdlan Blend Films","volume":"167","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2025.112475","article-title":"Konjac Glucomannan and Curdlan Modulate the Rheological Properties and Digestive Behaviors of Oil-in-Water Emulsions during In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion","volume":"392","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6225","DOI":"10.1021\/acsapm.5c00649","article-title":"Efficient Control of Swelling and Strength of Polyacrylamide\/Polyacrylic Acid\/Chitosan Hydrogels for Naf Release","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Polym. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1021\/bm500038g","article-title":"Properties, Chemistry, and Applications of the Bioactive Polysaccharide Curdlan","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2025.126161","article-title":"Biorelevant Simulation of Gi Variability and Its Impact on the Release Behavior of Non-Disintegrating Formulations: A Case Study Using Dhsi-Iv (Nerdt) System as a Novel In Vitro Tool","volume":"684","author":"Qiang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jddst.2023.104857","article-title":"How Bio-Relevant Buffering Media Affect Dissolution and Release Kinetics of Solid Formula: Ibuprofen as a Model","volume":"87","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Drug Deliv. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1007\/s12247-019-09392-6","article-title":"Advances in In Vivo Predictive Dissolution Testing of Solid Oral Formulations: How Closer to In Vivo Performance?","volume":"15","author":"Shrivas","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Innov."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123869","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2024.123869","article-title":"In Vitro Release and Bioaccessibility of Oral Solid Preparations in a Dynamic Gastrointestinal System Simulating Fasted and Fed States: A Case Study of Metformin Hydrochloride Tablets","volume":"652","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3965","DOI":"10.1039\/D0FO03364B","article-title":"Achieving Realistic Gastric Emptying Curve in an Advanced Dynamic In Vitro Human Digestion System: Experiences with Cheese\u2014A Difficult to Empty Material","volume":"12","author":"Peng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4093","DOI":"10.1021\/acsabm.5c00257","article-title":"Ph-Responsive Transdermal Release from Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)-Coated Liposomes and Transethosomes: Investigating the Role of Coating in Delayed Drug Delivery","volume":"8","author":"Sabbagh","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Appl. Bio Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2023.108946","article-title":"Highly Expandable Edible Hydrogels for the Prevention and Treatment of Obesity through Dietary Intervention","volume":"144","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2982.2006.00759.x","article-title":"Imaging and Modelling of Digestion in the Stomach and the Duodenum","volume":"18","author":"Schulze","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115249","article-title":"Shear Thinning Pectin Hydrogels Physically Cross-Linked with Chitosan Nanogels","volume":"225","author":"Shitrit","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1211\/002235702937","article-title":"Thermal Gelation of Aqueous Curdlan Suspension: Preparation of Curdlan Jelly","volume":"55","author":"Hino","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s41038-018-0138-8","article-title":"Recent Advances of on-Demand Dissolution of Hydrogel Dressings","volume":"6","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Burn. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.11.113","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of Electrostatically Crosslinked Carrageenan\/Chitosan Hydrogels and Carrageenan\/Chitosan\/Laponite Nanocomposite Hydrogels","volume":"225","author":"Papagiannopoulos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2022.111155","article-title":"Gastroretentive Core\u2013Shell Hydrogel Assembly for Sustained Release of Metformin Hydrochloride","volume":"170","author":"Jin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultsonch.2025.107289","article-title":"Ultrasonic Treatment Affects the Macromolecular, Conformational, Structural and Rheological Properties of Curdlan in Different Solvents","volume":"115","author":"Liang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ultrason. Sonochemistry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.4103\/2231-4040.79806","article-title":"Gastroretentive Microballoons of Metformin: Formulation Development and Characterization","volume":"2","author":"Yadav","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Adv. Pharm. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.H., Song, S.H., Joo, S.H., Park, G.H., and Weon, K.Y. (2022). Formulation of a Gastroretentive in Situ Oral Gel Containing Metformin Hcl Based on Doe. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14091777"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54939","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.5c08972","article-title":"Engineered Cyclodextrin-Starch Hydrogels for Ph-Triggered Drug Release","volume":"10","author":"Reis","year":"2025","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5364","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.3c00824","article-title":"Dual-Cross-Linked Pei\/Pva Hydrogel for Ph-Responsive Drug Delivery","volume":"24","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2025.123329","article-title":"Gellan-Based Hydrogels and Microgels: A Rheological Perspective","volume":"354","author":"Franco","year":"2025","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.049","article-title":"Ph Mediated Rheological Modulation of Chitosan Hydrogels","volume":"156","author":"Richa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G709","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.90318.2008","article-title":"Every Slow-Wave Impulse is Associated with Motor Activity of the Human Stomach","volume":"296","author":"Hocke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20220780","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2022.0780","article-title":"Effects of Peristaltic Amplitude and Frequency on Gastric Emptying and Mixing: A Simulation Study","volume":"20","author":"Ebara","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2018.09.008","article-title":"Rheological and Controlled Release Properties of Hydrogels Based on Mushroom Hyperbranched Polysaccharide and Xanthan Gum","volume":"120","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2017.12.023","article-title":"Development of Ph-Responsive Chitosan-Based Hydrogel Modified with Bone Ash for Controlled Release of Amoxicillin","volume":"184","author":"Aycan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szekalska, M., Sosnowska, K., Zakrzeska, A., Kasacka, I., Lewandowska, A., and Winnicka, K. (2017). The Influence of Chitosan Cross-Linking on the Properties of Alginate Microparticles with Metformin Hydrochloride\u2014In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22010182"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2010.10.037","article-title":"Elaborations on the Higuchi Model for Drug Delivery","volume":"418","author":"Paul","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oyarz\u00fan, Y., Ulloa, J., Ceballos, M., and Urbano, B.F. (2024). Dynamic Covalent Boronic-Acid-Functionalized Alginate\/Pva Hydrogels for Ph and Shear-Responsive Drug Delivery. Gels, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10080504"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pistone, A., de Gaetano, A., Piperopoulos, E., and Abate, C. (2023). Effect of Sodium Hydroxide and Tripolyphosphate on Curcumin Release from Chitosan-Based Macroparticles. Materials, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202307.1141.v1"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41596-018-0119-1","article-title":"Infogest Static In Vitro Simulation of Gastrointestinal Food Digestion","volume":"14","author":"Brodkorb","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1007\/s00289-018-2423-x","article-title":"The Study of Factors Affecting the Swelling of Ultrasound-Prepared Hydrogel","volume":"76","author":"Ebrahimi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Polym. Bull."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.5056\/jnm19200","article-title":"Assessment of Pyloric Sphincter Physiology Using Functional Luminal Imaging Probe in Healthy Volunteers","volume":"26","author":"Jagtap","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1111\/jtxs.12667","article-title":"The Surface Mechanics of Cooked Rice as Influenced by Gastric Fluids Measured Using a Micro Texture Analyzer","volume":"53","author":"Lv","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Texture Stud."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2016.10.027","article-title":"Exploring the Link between Gastric Motility and Intragastric Drug Distribution in Man","volume":"112","author":"Brouwers","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2018.03.002","article-title":"Interindividual and Intraindividual Variability of Fasted State Gastric Fluid Volume and Gastric Emptying of Water","volume":"127","author":"Grimm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2017.12.039","article-title":"Nanocomposite Chitosan Hydrogels Based on Plga Nanoparticles as Potential Biomedical Materials","volume":"99","author":"Rescignano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/5\/378\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T12:31:50Z","timestamp":1777552310000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/5\/378"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["gels12050378"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels12050378","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]}}}