{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T14:21:37Z","timestamp":1780410097143,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780358400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Osteoarthritis is the most prevalent age-related joint disease, yet the limited regenerative capacity of articular cartilage severely constrains spontaneous repair. Here, we present a freeze\u2013thaw polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)\/polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogel platform featuring a hybrid open\u2013closed macroporous architecture that enables cartilage-mimetic load dissipation for artificial cartilage applications. The hybrid porous structure provides synergistic advantages, where closed pores enhance load-bearing stiffness while open pores facilitate energy dissipation. By systematically tuning polymer composition and processing conditions, clear structure\u2013property relationships among porosity, water content, and mechanical performance are established. An optimized formulation (18 wt.% PVA, 85\u2013124 kDa; 18 wt.% PEG; three freeze\u2013thaw cycles) yields hydrogels with high water content (39.1 \u00b1 7.8 wt.%), high compressive Young\u2019s modulus (3.60 \u00b1 0.67 MPa), and excellent resilience under cyclic loading. Notably, under dynamic compression (2 m\/s), a frequently overlooked yet physiologically relevant mechanical property of hydrogels, the materials exhibit nearly twofold enhancement in compressive modulus compared to static conditions, demonstrating pronounced strain-rate-dependent stiffening. Finite element analysis reveals efficient load redistribution across the interconnected porous network, providing mechanistic insight into the observed mechanical robustness. Compared with native cartilage and recently reported hydrogel systems, the developed hydrogels exhibit superior stiffness while maintaining mechanical and structural resilience. In vitro cytotoxicity and direct-contact assays confirm excellent cytocompatibility. These results establish a scalable and cost-effective design strategy for engineering mechanically robust, rate-adaptive hydrogels, advancing the development of next-generation artificial cartilage substitutes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12060494","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T12:45:08Z","timestamp":1780404308000},"page":"494","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Freeze\u2013Thaw-Induced Hybrid Porous PVA\/PEG Hydrogels with Dynamic Load-Dissipation Capability for Cartilage Substitutes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8397-8551","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luon Tan","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick Kai Xuan","family":"Lim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenjuan","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanli","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6697-8437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Quang M. N.","family":"Phan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Duc Anh","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Y. B.","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V. P. W.","family":"Shim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Impact and Safety Engineering, Ministry of Education, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Huy-Du","family":"Do","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biosensors, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Department of Molecular and Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City 71308, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thanh-Tan","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biosensors, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Department of Molecular and Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City 71308, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2782-5232","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hieu","family":"Tran-Van","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biosensors, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Department of Molecular and Environmental Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Biotechnology, University of Science, Ho Chi Minh City 72711, Vietnam"},{"name":"Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City 71308, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1606-4522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nga H. N.","family":"Do","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Tropical Technology (VITTEP), 57A Truong Quoc Dung Street, Phu Nhuan Ward, Ho Chi Minh City 70073, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5667-5416","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hai M.","family":"Duong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117575, Singapore"},{"name":"Mekong University (MKU), Vinh Long 85216, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1080\/09205063.2020.1782023","article-title":"High strength polyvinyl alcohol\/polyacrylic acid (PVA\/PAA) hydrogel fabricated by cold-drawn method for cartilage tissue substitutes","volume":"31","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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