{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T05:01:27Z","timestamp":1789621287969,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784937600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Special Project on Cultural Research for the Revitalization of Culture Project in Henan Province","award":["2023XWH130"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023XWH130"]}]},{"name":"the Henan University Social Science Horizontal Research Project","award":["SKH2025023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SKH2025023"]}]},{"name":"the Postgraduate Education Reform and Quality Improvement Project of Henan University","award":["SYL2025YJSKC10"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SYL2025YJSKC10"]}]},{"name":"the Postgraduate Education Reform and Quality Improvement Project of Henan Province","award":["YJS2026ZYKC47"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YJS2026ZYKC47"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lead (Pb2+) pollution poses a severe threat to the ecological environment and human health due to its high toxicity, bioaccumulation, and refractory nature. Traditional treatment technologies for lead-contaminated wastewater, such as chemical precipitation, ion exchange, and membrane separation, often face limitations, including secondary pollution, high costs, and high energy consumption. In contrast, adsorption has emerged as a promising alternative technology with advantages such as a simple process, high efficiency at low concentrations, and renewability. Biomass-based hydrogels and their composite systems, as novel green adsorbent materials, combine the abundant functional groups of natural biomass with the structural stability, high porosity, and recoverability of hydrogels through a three-dimensional cross-linked network, offering unique advantages for lead ion adsorption. Depending on their composition, these systems range from fully biodegradable pure biopolymer networks to partly biodegradable or biomass-containing composites incorporating inorganic, carbon-based, or metal\u2013organic framework (MOF) materials. This paper systematically reviews the latest research progress on cellulose, lignin, sodium alginate, chitosan, starch-based hydrogels, and their composite systems for lead (Pb2+) adsorption. First, the structural characteristics, cross-linking mechanisms, and functional modification strategies of various biomass hydrogels are introduced. Then, the adsorption mechanisms of Pb2+, including multiple modes of action such as coordination complexation, ion exchange, electrostatic interaction, and physical adsorption, are systematically analyzed. The adsorption performance of different material systems is compared in detail. The regeneration and recycling performance, as well as the potential practical applications, of the materials are evaluated. On this basis, the main challenges in current research are summarised: balancing adsorption capacity and mechanical strength, achieving selective adsorption in actual wastewater, improving regeneration efficiency, and optimizing costs. In addition, future development directions for biomass hydrogel adsorbent materials are discussed, including the design of multi-functional composite materials, the development of intelligent, responsive hydrogels, engineering-scale-up, and life-cycle assessment. This review aims to provide a theoretical framework and technical roadmap for the rational design of high-performance, sustainable hydrogel adsorbents and to promote their engineering application for the treatment of lead-contaminated wastewater.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12080667","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,27]],"date-time":"2026-07-27T09:47:41Z","timestamp":1785145661000},"page":"667","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Biodegradable Hydrogels for Pb2+ Removal from Water: Design Strategies, Mechanisms, and Future Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Jianhui","family":"Guo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Design, College of Fine Arts, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yue","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Design, College of Fine Arts, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Design, College of Fine Arts, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Design, College of Fine Arts, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6496-3178","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Youming","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yida","family":"Niu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Art, Zhengzhou University of Science and Technology, Zhengzhou 450064, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sipei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Design, College of Fine Arts, Henan University, Kaifeng 475001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Humanities and Arts, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5830-155X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou 450046, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2229","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-83299-2","article-title":"Probabilistic Assessment of the Cumulative Risk from Dietary Heavy Metal Exposure in Chongqing, China Using a Hazard-Driven Approach","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. 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