{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T23:03:11Z","timestamp":1792018991773,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"CHIPS Joint Undertaking","award":["101140192"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101140192"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oleogels have emerged as promising anhydrous semisolid systems for dermato-cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications owing to their improved physicochemical stability, enhanced occlusive properties, reduced dependence on preservatives, and ability to incorporate and deliver both lipophilic and dispersed hydrophilic bioactive compounds. The present study aimed to develop and comprehensively characterize a multifunctional lipid-based oleogel incorporating a Matricaria chamomilla hydroglyceric extract together with sea buckthorn oil and sweet almond oil as natural sources of antioxidant and skin-protective phytoconstituents for potential topical applications. The formulation was prepared by the melt method and comprehensively characterized for its physicochemical, functional, and biological properties. The chamomile extract exhibited a high phenolic content and pronounced antioxidant activity, while HPLC-DAD analysis confirmed the presence of characteristic phenolic acids and flavonoids. The developed oleogel showed good physicochemical stability under accelerated storage conditions, appropriate pH for topical application, favorable spreadability, pseudoplastic flow behavior with a Casson yield stress of 0.19 Pa, and a homogeneous microstructure with a mean droplet size of 5.4 \u00b1 1.1 \u03bcm. The formulation also demonstrated pronounced occlusive properties (67.9 \u00b1 0.3% and 56.4 \u00b1 0.2% after 24 and 48 h, respectively), preserved the antioxidant activity of the incorporated phytoconstituents, and provided controlled biphasic release of phenolic compounds, reaching 64.9 \u00b1 5.9% after 24 h in Franz diffusion studies. Furthermore, no cytotoxic effects were observed on HaCaT keratinocytes, confirming the good in vitro biocompatibility of the formulation. Overall, the developed oleogel successfully combined physicochemical stability, preserved antioxidant functionality, controlled phenolic release, pronounced occlusive properties, and biocompatibility, highlighting the potential of anhydrous oleogel systems as multifunctional topical delivery platforms for plant-derived bioactive compounds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12080704","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]],"date-time":"2026-08-06T09:46:38Z","timestamp":1786009598000},"page":"704","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Bioactive Oleogel Incorporating Chamomile Hydroglyceric Extract: Physicochemical Characterization, Occlusive Properties, Controlled Release and Biocompatibility"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2623-3307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mona Luciana","family":"G\u0103l\u0103\u021banu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ion","family":"Mircioiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4526-4037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen Elisabeta","family":"Manea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Horia Hulubei National Institute for R&D in Physics and Nuclear Engineering (IFIN-HH), Reactorului 30 St., 077125 Magurele, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0540-2132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmen Marinela","family":"Mih\u0103ilescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"National Institute for Research and Development in Microtehnologies (IMT), 077190 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Doctoral School, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, 200349 Craiova, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8302-8823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirela Antonela","family":"Mih\u0103il\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"},{"name":"Stefan S. Nicolau Institute of Virology, Mihai Bravu St, 030304 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0024-019X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roxana Colette","family":"Sandulovici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3050-6486","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marinela","family":"Bostan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stefan S. Nicolau Institute of Virology, Mihai Bravu St, 030304 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Florin Adrian","family":"Marin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eminvest Pharmaceuticals SRL, Stefan Stoica St., 012243 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1482-5367","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adina","family":"Boldeiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Research and Development in Microtehnologies (IMT), 077190 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2239-9115","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mihaela","family":"Savin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Research and Development in Microtehnologies (IMT), 077190 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2502-3981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasilica","family":"\u021aucureanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Research and Development in Microtehnologies (IMT), 077190 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3637-371X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marian","family":"Ion","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Research and Development in Microtehnologies (IMT), 077190 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emilia","family":"P\u0103nu\u0219","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Ovidius University of Constanta, Universitatii Street No. 1, 900470 Constanta, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oana","family":"Brincoveanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Research and Development in Microtehnologies (IMT), 077190 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9932-0463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana","family":"Pan\u021buroiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, Titu Maiorescu University, 040314 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulawik-Pi\u00f3ro, A., and Miastkowska, M. (2021). Polymeric gels and their application in the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris: A review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22105124"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghan, S.Y., Siow, L.F., Tan, C.P., Cheong, K.W., and Thoo, Y.Y. (2022). Oleogel: Production and application. Recent Advances in Edible Fats and Oils Technology: Processing, Health Implications, Economic and Environmental Impact, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-16-5113-7_12"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferdaus, M.J., Mahmud, N., Talukder, S., and Silva, R.C.D. (2025). Characteristics and Functional Properties of Bioactive Oleogels: A Current Review. Gels, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels11010069"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2075","DOI":"10.1007\/s11696-020-01468-9","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of oleogels and emulgels with glycerol monooleate\u2014Cholesterol mixtures","volume":"75","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chem. Pap."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6095","DOI":"10.52711\/0974-360X.2023.00989","article-title":"A Review on Oleogels and Its Role in Pharmaceutical Field","volume":"16","author":"Prusty","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. J. Pharm. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-024-02854-2","article-title":"Oleogels: Versatile novel semi-solid system for pharmaceuticals","volume":"25","author":"Pawar","year":"2024","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2007.09.014","article-title":"Organogels and their use in drug delivery\u2014A review","volume":"125","author":"Vintiloiu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2785","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.15788","article-title":"Oleogel-Based Emulsions: Concepts, Structuring Agents, and Applications in Food","volume":"86","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2017.11.022","article-title":"The beneficial health aspects of sea buckthorn (Elaeagnus rhamnoides (L.) A. Nelson) oil","volume":"213","author":"Olas","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-017-0469-7","article-title":"Abundance of active ingredients in sea-buckthorn oil","volume":"16","author":"Nowak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1159\/000479528","article-title":"Sea buckthorn (Hippopha\u00eb rhamnoides L.) oil improves atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions via inhibition of NF-\u03baB and STAT1 activation","volume":"30","author":"Hou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ski. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ctcp.2009.06.015","article-title":"The uses and properties of almond oil","volume":"16","author":"Ahmad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, T.K., Zhong, L., and Santiago, J.L. (2017). Anti-inflammatory and skin barrier repair effects of topical application of some plant oils. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19010070"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1473-2165.2007.00293.x","article-title":"Effect of pre-treatment of almond oil on ultraviolet B-induced cutaneous photoaging in mice","volume":"6","author":"Sultana","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cosmet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1007\/s00425-024-04550-8","article-title":"Aromatic plants as cosmeceuticals: Benefits and applications for skin health","volume":"260","year":"2024","journal-title":"Planta"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan\u0163uroiu, M., G\u0103l\u0103\u0163anu, M.L., Manea, C.E., Popescu, M., Sandulovici, R.C., and P\u0103nu\u015f, E. (2025). From chemical composition to biological activity: Phytochemical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial comparison of Matricaria chamomilla and Tripleurospermum inodorum. Compounds, 5.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202510.0632.v1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1080\/10837450.2017.1322612","article-title":"The effect of chamomile extract obtained in supercritical carbon dioxide conditions on physicochemical and usable properties of pharmaceutical ointments","volume":"23","author":"Klimaszewska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharm. Dev. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.3109\/15569527.2016.1147456","article-title":"Influence of some plant extracts on the transdermal absorption and penetration of marker penetrants","volume":"36","author":"Muhammad","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cutan. Ocul. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1007\/s11483-010-9162-3","article-title":"Shear nanostructuring of monoglyceride organogels","volume":"5","author":"Calligaris","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Biophys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2014.08.029","article-title":"Comparing the crystallization and rheological behavior of organogels developed by pure and commercial monoglycerides in vegetable oil","volume":"64","author":"Marangoni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3432","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.15442","article-title":"The thermal, rheological, and structural characterization of grapeseed oil oleogels structured with binary blends of oleogelator","volume":"85","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sotiropoulou, N.S., Megremi, S.F., and Tarantilis, P. (2020). Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity, Toxicity, and Phenolic Profile of Aqueous Extracts of Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) and Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) Prepared at Different Temperatures. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10072270"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsivelika, N., Irakli, M., Mavromatis, A., Chatzopoulou, P., and Karioti, A. (2021). Phenolic Profile by HPLC-PDA-MS of Greek Chamomile Populations and Commercial Varieties and Their Antioxidant Activity. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10102345"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Catani, M.V., Rinaldi, F., Tullio, V., Gasperi, V., and Savini, I. (2021). Comparative Analysis of Phenolic Composition of Six Commercially Available Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) Extracts: Potential Biological Implications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910601"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"31","article-title":"Analysis of Phenolic Compounds in Matricaria chamomilla and Its Extracts by UPLC-UV","volume":"9","author":"Haghi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2021.130779","article-title":"Oleogelation of Extra Virgin Olive Oil by Different Oleogelators Affects the Physical Properties and the Stability of Bioactive Compounds","volume":"368","author":"Alongi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17844","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-56234-w","article-title":"Development and Characterization of Dibenzalacetone-Loaded Oleogels as Potential Photoprotective Agents for Sunscreen Formulations","volume":"16","author":"Sheta","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141\u0119tocha, A., Miastkowska, M., Sikora, E., Michalczyk, A., Liszka-Skoczylas, M., and Witczak, M. (2024). Hybrid Systems of Oleogels and Probiotic-Loaded Alginate Carriers for Potential Application in Cosmetics. Molecules, 29.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29245984"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2023.100751","article-title":"Fabrication and characterization of novel thermoresponsive emulsion gels and oleogels stabilized by assembling nanofibers from dual natural triterpenoid saponins","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"68","article-title":"Edible oleogels based on water-in-oil emulsions: Preparation and characterization","volume":"1","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, J., Yun, M., Li, J., Gao, Y., and Mao, L. (2024). Development of Oleogel-in-Water High Internal Phase Emulsions with Improved Physicochemical Stability and Their Application in Mayonnaise. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4843598"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127815","article-title":"Stabilization of oil-in-water high internal phase emulsions with octenyl succinic acid starch and beeswax oleogel","volume":"254","author":"Yu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1719","article-title":"Nanoemulsions versus microemulsions: Terminology, differences, and similarities","volume":"8","author":"McClements","year":"2012","journal-title":"Foods"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"366","article-title":"Enhancing omega-3 fatty acids stability using microencapsulation techniques","volume":"209","author":"Karthik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1007\/s10068-023-01501-z","article-title":"Oleogel classification, physicochemical characterization methods, and typical cases of application in food: A review","volume":"33","author":"Qiu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1039\/C4FO00034J","article-title":"Edible applications of shellac oleogels: Spreads, chocolate paste and cakes","volume":"5","author":"Patel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ohsedo, Y. (2023). Development of Thixotropic Molecular Oleogels Comprising Alkylanilide Gelators by Using a Mixing Strategy. Gels, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9090717"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chai, X., Zhang, Y., Shi, Y., and Liu, Y. (2022). Crystallization and Structural Properties of Oleogel-Based Margarine. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27248952"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Tekade, R.K. (2018). Basic Fundamentals of Drug Delivery, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Holban, A.M., and Grumezescu, A.M. (2016). Nanoarchitectonics for Smart Delivery and Drug Targeting, William Andrew."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"10815","article-title":"Interpretation of infrared spectra, a practical approach","volume":"12","author":"Coates","year":"2000","journal-title":"Encycl. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"Infrared spectroscopy in the study of edible oils and fats","volume":"75","author":"Cabo","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2011.619020","article-title":"Application of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for authentication of functional food oils","volume":"47","author":"Rohman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"117","article-title":"Eco-extraction of albanian chamomile essential oils by liquid CO2 at different temperatures and characterisation by FTIR spectroscopy","volume":"18","author":"Taraj","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Prot. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stuart, B.H. (2004). Infrared Spectroscopy: Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470011149"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pu\u0219ca\u0219, A., Mure\u0219an, V., and Muste, S. (2021). Application of analytical methods for the comprehensive analysis of oleogels\u2014A review. Polymers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym13121934"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Marangoni, A.G., and Garti, N. (2018). Edible Oleogels: Structure and Health Implications, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6069","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2027339","article-title":"Oleogels prepared with low molecular weight gelators: Texture, rheology and sensory properties, a review","volume":"63","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.2340\/00015555741517","article-title":"Occlusivity and Effects of Two Occlusive Dressings on Normal Human Skin","volume":"74","author":"Agren","year":"1994","journal-title":"Acta Derm.-Venereol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luki\u0107, M., \u0106iri\u0107, A., Bo\u017ei\u0107, D.D., Stankovi\u0107, J.A., Medarevi\u0107, \u0110., and Maksimovi\u0107, Z. (2024). Extracts from Wheat, Maize, and Sunflower Waste as Natural Raw Materials for Cosmetics: Value-Added Products Reaching Sustainability Goals. Pharmaceutics, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics16091182"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2009). Biological Evaluation of Medical Devices-Part 5: Tests for In Vitro Cytotoxicity (Standard No. ISO 10993-5:2009)."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"(2026, March 23). AOAC Official Method 921.08, Index of Refraction of Oils and Fats. Available online: https:\/\/www.mt.com\/sg\/en\/home\/library\/applications\/lab-analytical-instruments\/refractive-index-of-oils-and-fats-aoac-92108.html."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barkhuu, B., Lodonjav, M., Ganzorig, O., and Tumurtogoo, N. (2021). The physicochemical composition of sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) oil and its treatment characteristics. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Chemical Investigation and Utilization of Natural Resource (ICCIUNR-2021), Virtual, 14\u201315 October 2021, Atlantis Press.","DOI":"10.2991\/ahcps.k.211004.008"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.36348\/sjet.2022.v07i06.005","article-title":"Physicochemical characteristics study of oil extracted from almond seed","volume":"7","author":"Akinola","year":"2022","journal-title":"Saudi J. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2020). Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils\u2014Determination of Acid Value and Acidity (Standard No. ISO 660:2020). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/75594.html."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"(2023). Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils\u2014Determination of Saponification Value (Standard No. ISO 3657:2023). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/85171.html."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"(2018). Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils\u2014Determination of Iodine Value (Standard No. ISO 3961:2018). Available online: https:\/\/cdn.standards.iteh.ai\/samples\/71868\/cb7d445d9d324470af3718612999fd5b\/ISO-3961-2018.pdf."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"(2017). Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils\u2014Determination of Peroxide Value\u2014Iodometric (Visual) Endpoint Determination (Standard No. ISO 3960:2017). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/71268.html."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u0103l\u0103\u0163anu, M.L., Pan\u0163uroiu, M., Ordeanu, V., Neagu, R., Gavriloaia, R.M., Auric\u0103, S.N., and Costache, G.M. (2026). Revealing the Bioactive Potential of Romanian Wild Hop Cones: An Integrative Chemical, Antimicrobial, and Antibiofilm Activity and In Silico Docking Analysis. Molecules, 31.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31030405"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan\u0163uroiu, M., G\u0103l\u0103\u0163anu, M.L., Voicu, S.N., P\u0103nu\u015f, E., Cima, L.M., Bi\u0163\u0103, A., Mih\u0103ilescu, C.M., Manea, C.-E., Turcu-\u0218tiolic\u0103, A., and Amzoiu, M.O. (2026). Comparative Phytochemical Characterization, Biological Activities and Safety Assessment of Salvia pratensis L. and Salvia sclarea L.. Plants, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants15071038"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barel, A.O., Paye, M., and Maibach, H.I. (2014). Handbook of Cosmetic Science and Technology, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b16716"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.56499\/jppres20.908_9.1.98","article-title":"Prediction of the Physical Stability and Quality of O\/W Cosmetic Emulsions Using Accelerated Stability Tests","volume":"9","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacogn. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2024.138704","article-title":"Interfacial Crystallized Oleogel Emulsion with Improved Freeze-Thaw Stability and Tribological Properties: Influence of Cooling Rate","volume":"445","author":"Liao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s13036-023-00353-9","article-title":"Enhancing Chemical and Physical Stability of Pharmaceuticals Using Freeze-Thaw Method: Challenges and Opportunities for Process Optimization through Quality by Design Approach","volume":"17","author":"Kiyekbayeva","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Biol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2022.106049","article-title":"Droplet size distribution, atomization mechanism and dynamics of dental aerosols","volume":"166","author":"Kayahan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manea, C.-E., Mih\u0103ilescu, C.-M., Mih\u0103il\u0103, M.A., Sandulovici, R.C., Cord, D., R\u00eembu, M.C., Marin, F.A., Boldeiu, A., \u021aucureanu, V., and Turcu-\u0218tiolic\u0103, A. (2026). Development and Physicochemical Characterization of an Argan\u2013Castor Oil O\/W Emulsion for Cosmetic Applications. Cosmetics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cosmetics13020078"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1994","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-021-05214-1","article-title":"Effect of Biopolymers Concentration and Drying Methods on Physicochemical Properties of Emulsion-Templated Oleogel","volume":"59","author":"Moradabbasi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-013-9986-5","article-title":"Niosomal gel of lornoxicam for topical delivery: In vitro assessment and pharmacodynamic activity","volume":"14","author":"Kumbhar","year":"2013","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.2600521210","article-title":"Mechanism of Sustained-Action Medication. Theoretical Analysis of Rate of Release of Solid Drugs Dispersed in Solid Matrices","volume":"52","author":"Higuchi","year":"1963","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mihaila, M., Hotnog, C.M., Bostan, M., Munteanu, A.C., Vacaroiu, I.A., Brasoveanu, L.I., and Uivarosi, V. (2021). Anticancer Activity of Some Ruthenium (III) Complexes with Quinolone Antibiotics: In Vitro Cytotoxicity, Cell Cycle Modulation and Apoptosis Inducing Properties in LoVo Colon Cancer Cell Line. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11188594"},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"8106","article-title":"Real-time analysis of quercetin, resveratrol and\/or doxorubicin effects in MCF-7 cells","volume":"18","author":"Mihaila","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rom. Biotechnol. Lett."}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/8\/704\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,8]],"date-time":"2026-08-08T04:25:04Z","timestamp":1786163104000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/8\/704"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["gels12080704"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels12080704","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,6]]}}}