{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T12:17:41Z","timestamp":1787833061130,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787788800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Guangdong Dashuyun Investment Holding Group Co., Ltd.","award":["342355"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["342355"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Unrefined cucumber biomass powder (CBP) was incorporated into a poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) (P(AA-co-AM)) network to develop a superabsorbent hydrogel with enhanced gel network rigidity and swelling performance. CBP served as a renewable reinforcing scaffold, providing a multicomponent biomass matrix for physical reinforcement alongside abundant hydrophilic groups (\u2013OH, \u2013NH, and \u2013CONH\u2013). Spectroscopic and rheological analyses suggest that CBP integration significantly alters the gel network through complex multi-component interactions, as evidenced by FTIR peak shifts (3435 \u2192 3442 cm\u22121, 1558 \u2192 1567 cm\u22121) that are consistent with extensive interfacial hydrogen bonding and potential partial chemical integration, leading to a 97% increase in storage modulus (from 11.9 kPa to 23.4 kPa) with a corresponding decrease in tan\u03b4 from 0.36 to 0.26. Under optimized synthesis conditions, the composite exhibited 30 min free-swelling capacities of 2801.00 g\/g in deionized water, 142.72 g\/g in 0.9 wt% NaCl, and 65.04 g\/g in synthetic urine, along with rapid kinetics (1637.49 g\/g within 1 min) and partial residual swelling capacity (727.44 g\/g retained after five cycles). Rheological analysis revealed that CBP incorporation enhances network stiffness while introducing a more strain-sensitive response at high deformations\u2014a typical trade-off for rigidized gel networks. These findings demonstrate that unrefined model biomass can serve as an effective, low-cost reinforcing scaffold for functional hydrogels, offering a sustainable route for personal care or agricultural applications in gel materials design.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12090768","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T10:58:21Z","timestamp":1787828301000},"page":"768","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cucumber Biomass Powder as Reinforcing Scaffold for Poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) Superabsorbent Hydrogels: Structure and Properties"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6702-0616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuliang","family":"Lu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jianping","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yichun","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianyu","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lezi","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chenfei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaoning","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yang","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Materials and New Energy, South China Normal University, Shanwei 516600, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104774","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reactfunctpolym.2020.104774","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) surface-crosslinked with polycations","volume":"157","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5179","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-024-03315-4","article-title":"Biocompatible cellulose-based superabsorbents for personal care products","volume":"32","author":"Rebelo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5212","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-024-03297-3","article-title":"Development and characterization of sodium alginate-based bio-hybrid super absorbent polymer with high retention capacity suitable for baby diapers","volume":"32","author":"Ismaeilimoghadam","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.122114","article-title":"Cellulosic biomass-based sustainable hydrogels for wastewater remediation: Chemistry and prospective","volume":"309","author":"Thakur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2020.0350","article-title":"Recent advances on bioprinted gelatin methacrylate-based hydrogels for tissue repair","volume":"27","author":"Rajabi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tissue Eng. Part A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Omidian, H., Akhzarmehr, A., and Chowdhury, S.D. (2024). Advancements in cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogels: Sustainable solutions across industries. Gels, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10030174"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, Y., Fang, Z., and Lee, H.-J. (2024). Exploring applications and preparation techniques for cellulose hydrogels: A comprehensive review. Gels, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels10060365"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-025-07477-1","article-title":"A review on superabsorbent polymers: Application and recent advances in environmental and economic profiling","volume":"7","author":"Gujjala","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.3390\/polysaccharides1010005","article-title":"Biosourced polysaccharide-based superabsorbents","volume":"1","author":"Llanes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polysaccharides"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berradi, A., Aziz, F., Achaby, M.E., Ouazzani, N., and Mandi, L. (2023). A comprehensive review of polysaccharide-based hydrogels as promising biomaterials. Polymers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym15132908"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1134\/S0965545X18060044","article-title":"Hydrogels based on cellulose and its derivatives: Applications, synthesis, and characteristics","volume":"60","author":"Ghorbani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Polym. Sci. Ser. A"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2024.122491","article-title":"Tough polyacrylic acid hydrogels with stable swelling and active functionalities enabled by quaternized cellulose nanofibrils and iron ions for absorbent pad interlayers","volume":"345","author":"Ge","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.157303","article-title":"Environmentally friendly hydrogel: A review of classification, preparation and application in agriculture","volume":"846","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reactfunctpolym.2021.105144","article-title":"Swelling characterization of ionic responsive superabsorbent resin containing carboxylate sodium groups","volume":"170","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2020.109586","article-title":"Dual crosslinked carboxymethyl cellulose\/polyacrylamide interpenetrating hydrogels with highly enhanced mechanical strength and superabsorbent properties","volume":"127","author":"Jeong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.37256\/fse.5220244795","article-title":"Phytochemical, nutritional and medicinal profile of Cucumis sativus L. (cucumber)","volume":"5","author":"Javid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2019.04.003","article-title":"Redox two-component initiated free radical and cationic polymerizations: Concepts, reactions and applications","volume":"94","author":"Garra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-026-04986-4","article-title":"Valorization of water-hyacinth-derived cellulose nanocrystals in biodegradable PVA\u2013chitosan films for enhanced Cu(II) ion adsorption","volume":"33","author":"Nguyen","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.156487","article-title":"A critical review on technological development of cellulosic material as a sustainable alternative for superabsorbent polymers and its recent applications","volume":"499","author":"Chavan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2021.101475","article-title":"Superabsorbent polymers: From long-established, microplastics generating systems, to sustainable, biodegradable and future proof alternatives","volume":"125","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2019.04.054","article-title":"Superabsorbent polymers: A review on the characteristics and applications of synthetic, polysaccharide-based, semi-synthetic and \u2018smart\u2019 derivatives","volume":"117","author":"Mignon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2021.100168","article-title":"Applications of infrared spectroscopy in polysaccharide structural analysis: Progress, challenge and perspective","volume":"12","author":"Hong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2023.121463","article-title":"Innovative hydrogels made from babassu mesocarp for technological application in agriculture","volume":"376","author":"Sousa","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.146926","article-title":"Development and characterization of a carboxymethyl cellulose-alginate hybrid superabsorbent hydrogel designed for water management in agriculture","volume":"323","author":"Berradi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.168962","article-title":"A comprehensive assessment of superabsorbent resin produced using modified quinoa husk and coal fly ash-preparation, characterization and application","volume":"912","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Z., Qu, Y., Chen, L., Mo, H., Ji, C., Brosse, N., Mubarok, M., Zhou, X., Di, Y., and Liao, J. (2025). Facile fabrication of wood fiber-hydrogel composites for enhanced water and nutrient efficiency in soilless cultivation. Materials, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma18235461"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1007\/s00289-019-02840-w","article-title":"The properties of conventionally and microwave synthesized poly(acrylamide-co-acrylic acid) hydrogels","volume":"77","author":"Erceg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Polym. Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4589","DOI":"10.1007\/s10924-024-03265-x","article-title":"Starch-grafted polyacrylic acid copolymer with acrylamide: An advanced adsorbent for Victoria green B dye removal and environmental remediation","volume":"32","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Polym. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45554","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.4c07831","article-title":"Structural changes of water in carboxymethyl cellulose nanofiber hydrogels during vapor swelling and drying","volume":"9","author":"Takahara","year":"2024","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Apayd\u0131n Varol, E., and Mutlu, \u00dc. (2023). TGA-FTIR analysis of biomass samples based on the thermal decomposition behavior of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Energies, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/en16093674"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1723792","article-title":"Statistical mechanics of cross-linked polymer networks II. Swelling","volume":"11","author":"Flory","year":"1943","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.still.2022.105427","article-title":"High salt tolerance hydrogel prepared of hydroxyethyl starch and its ability to increase soil water holding capacity and decrease water evaporation","volume":"222","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soil Tillage Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2016.10.101","article-title":"One-step method to prepare starch-based superabsorbent polymer for slow release of fertilizer","volume":"309","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mtcomm.2018.12.015","article-title":"Preparation, swelling behaviors and fertilizer-release properties of sodium humate modified superabsorbent resin","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Today Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jscs.2021.101254","article-title":"Superabsorbent composites based on rice husk for agricultural applications: Swelling behavior, biodegradability in soil and drought alleviation","volume":"25","author":"Kenawy","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Saudi Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2020.125133","article-title":"Reinforced swelling and water-retention properties of super-absorbent hydrogel fabricated by a dual stretchable single network tactic","volume":"602","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"145","article-title":"Integration of biopolymers in polyacrylic acid hydrogels: Innovations and applications in bioresources and bioproducts","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Bioresour. Bioprod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2022.120140","article-title":"Cellulose\/nanocellulose superabsorbent hydrogels as a sustainable platform for materials applications: A mini-review and perspective","volume":"299","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2022.119421","article-title":"Synthesis of cellulose-g-poly (acrylic acid) with high water absorbency using pineapple-leaf extracted cellulose fibers","volume":"288","author":"Thien","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3723","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-021-03776-z","article-title":"Superabsorbent hydrogels enhanced by quaternized tunicate cellulose nanocrystals with adjustable strength and swelling ratio","volume":"28","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25302","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1591\/ad2485","article-title":"Synthesis, characterization, and swelling properties of a novel tapioca-g-poly (acrylic acid-2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid)\/ammonium polyphosphate superabsorbent polymer","volume":"11","author":"Vo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1080\/01932691.2011.567176","article-title":"Kinetics and in situ rheological behavior of acrylamide redox polymerization","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dispers. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.123643","article-title":"Synthesis and property of superabsorbent polymer based on cellulose grafted 2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid","volume":"233","author":"Hao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7113","DOI":"10.1007\/s10570-023-05317-2","article-title":"Superabsorbent fabric: In situ polymerisation of macroporous starch-sodium alginate-polyacrylate hydrogel on fibre surface","volume":"30","author":"Yao","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cellulose"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127013","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127013","article-title":"Modeling and investigation of swelling kinetics of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose\/starch\/citric acid superabsorbent polymer","volume":"253","author":"Prasad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8820","DOI":"10.1039\/D3SM01228J","article-title":"Swelling kinetics of constrained hydrogel spheres","volume":"19","author":"Cano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2019.115214","article-title":"Preparation of superabsorbent resin with fast water absorption rate based on hydroxymethyl cellulose sodium and its application","volume":"225","author":"Cheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101098","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mser.2025.101098","article-title":"Enhancing water retention in hydrogels under extreme conditions: Strategies, applications and challenges","volume":"167","author":"Chang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135756","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.135756","article-title":"Hydrogel materials for sustainable water resources harvesting & treatment: Synthesis, mechanism and applications","volume":"439","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15983","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-53381-y","article-title":"The contribution of soil extract composition and cyclic moisture dynamics to the physicochemical aging of superabsorbent polyacrylic acid and polyacrylamide hydrogels","volume":"16","author":"Neff","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2053","DOI":"10.1039\/D3SM00077J","article-title":"Compressional stress stiffening & softening of soft hydrogels\u2014How to avoid artefacts in their rheological characterisation","volume":"19","author":"Ferraro","year":"2023","journal-title":"Soft Matter"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2298","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.macromol.2c02068","article-title":"Dual origin of viscoelasticity in polymer-carbon black hydrogels: A rheometry and electrical spectroscopy study","volume":"56","author":"Legrand","year":"2023","journal-title":"Macromolecules"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5436","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.chemmater.5c01421","article-title":"Design strategies and perspectives on the toughening of hydrogels via fully physical cross-linking","volume":"37","author":"Pruksawan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e57278","DOI":"10.1002\/app.57278","article-title":"Evaluation on effects of chitosan derived from shrimp shells on engineering properties, antioxidant, antibacterial, and microstructural characteristics of chitosan\u2013alginate\u2013carrageenan-based hydrogels","volume":"142","author":"Thang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"451","article-title":"Superabsorbent polymer materials: A review","volume":"17","author":"Kabiri","year":"2008","journal-title":"Iran. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127118","article-title":"Interpenetrating and semi-interpenetrating network superabsorbent hydrogels based on sodium alginate and cellulose nanocrystals: A biodegradable and high-performance solution for adult incontinence pads","volume":"253","author":"Ismaeilimoghadam","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2025.170721","article-title":"Citric acid and cellulose derivatives-based superabsorbent hydrogels (SAH) as sustainable material alternatives for personal hygiene products","volume":"526","author":"Islam","year":"2025","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rinma.2020.100156","article-title":"A new approach for assessing the absorption of disposable baby diapers and superabsorbent polymers: A comparative study","volume":"8","author":"Bachra","year":"2020","journal-title":"Results Mater."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16223","DOI":"10.1007\/s10853-021-06306-1","article-title":"Factors affecting the properties of superabsorbent polymer hydrogels and methods to improve their performance: A review","volume":"56","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180007","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.180007","article-title":"Preparation of a low-cost and eco-friendly superabsorbent composite based on wheat bran and laterite for potential application in Chinese herbal medicine growth","volume":"5","author":"Gao","year":"2018","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.122156","article-title":"Adsorption kinetic models: Physical meanings, applications, and solving methods","volume":"390","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800272","DOI":"10.1002\/star.201800272","article-title":"Synthesis and swelling behavior of super-absorbent soluble starch-g-poly(AM-co-NaAMC14 S) through graft copolymerization and hydrolysis","volume":"71","author":"Lan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Starch-St\u00e4rke"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbpol.2021.118636","article-title":"Preparation and fertilizer retention\/anti-leakage performances of superabsorbent composite based on hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose","volume":"274","author":"Ye","year":"2021","journal-title":"Carbohydr. Polym."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"(2020). Urine-Absorbing Aids for Incontinence\u2014Polyacrylate Superabsorbent Powders\u2014Part 6: Test Method for Determination of the Fluid Retention Capacity in Saline Solution by Gravimetric Measurement Following Centrifugation (Standard No. ISO 17190-6:2020)."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icp010","article-title":"Nonlinear viscoelastic biomaterials: Meaningful characterization and engineering inspiration","volume":"49","author":"Ewoldt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Integr. Comp. Biol."}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/9\/768\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]],"date-time":"2026-08-27T11:21:55Z","timestamp":1787829715000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/9\/768"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["gels12090768"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels12090768","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,27]]}}}