{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T10:21:18Z","timestamp":1788258078613,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787875200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The utilization of protein-rich agricultural by-products offers a sustainable strategy for developing plant-based meat analogs. This study investigated the effects of cold-pressed hemp seed cake (HSC) incorporation at levels of 0\u201320% on the pasting, thermal\u2013rheological, textural, and structural properties of high-moisture meat analogs produced by extrusion. Increasing HSC incorporation significantly reduced peak viscosity, indicating altered starch\u2013protein\u2013fiber interactions within the blends. During temperature-sweep measurements, all formulations exhibited elastic-dominant behavior, with the storage modulus remaining higher than the loss modulus throughout heating and cooling. Although the initial viscoelastic moduli decreased with increasing HSC content, the final moduli after cooling were comparable to those of the control. Incorporation of 15% and 20% HSC significantly decreased hardness from 44.02 to 38.88 N and chewiness from 1730.20 to 1517.31 g, whereas springiness, cohesiveness, and the hardness degradation ratio remained largely unchanged. Fibrous structures were maintained in all formulations, while cutting strength tended to increase and the texturization degree numerically increased from 1.04 to 1.15 at 20% HSC. These findings demonstrate that HSC can replace up to 20% of the conventional protein\u2013starch blend while maintaining thermal viscoelasticity and anisotropic fibrous structure, although producing a moderately softer high-moisture meat analog.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels12090773","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T09:48:36Z","timestamp":1788256116000},"page":"773","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Thermal Rheology and Fibrous Structure of High-Moisture Meat Analogs with Hemp Seed Cake"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-7840-2910","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyerim","family":"Jeon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, Food and Feed Extrusion Research Center, Kongju National University, Yesan 32439, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1805-7908","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bon-Jae","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Science and Technology, Food and Feed Extrusion Research Center, Kongju National University, Yesan 32439, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oneear.2024.06.013","article-title":"Critical overview of the implications of a global protein transition in the face of climate change: Key unknowns and research imperatives","volume":"7","author":"Lumsden","year":"2024","journal-title":"One Earth"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100882","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crfs.2024.100882","article-title":"Alternative proteins; A path to sustainable diets and environment","volume":"9","author":"Jafarzadeh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2319003121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2319003121","article-title":"A perspective on the environmental impact of plant-based protein concentrates and isolates","volume":"121","author":"Aimutis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2025.2534839","article-title":"Hemp seed as an emerging source of nutritious functional ingredients","volume":"66","author":"Hossain","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.37349\/eff.2024.00055","article-title":"Review of hemp components as functional feed and food ingredients: Impact on animal product quality traits and nutritional value","volume":"2","author":"Papatzimos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Explor. Foods Foodomics"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1039\/D3FB00215B","article-title":"Recent advances in plant protein modification: Spotlight on hemp protein","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sustain. Food Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2474136","DOI":"10.1080\/15440478.2025.2474136","article-title":"Hemp seed and its milk analog: A review on specialties, significance and emerging needs","volume":"22","author":"Thakur","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Nat. Fibers"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12436","DOI":"10.1021\/jf5044426","article-title":"Characterization of byproducts originating from hemp oil processing","volume":"62","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70954","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.70954","article-title":"Evaluation of protein solubility, lipid oxidative stability and physical properties of hemp Seed Based foods and By Products","volume":"13","author":"Hayward","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2024.101192","article-title":"Advancements in texturization processes for the development of plant-based meat analogs: A review","volume":"58","author":"Pasqualone","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2025.144417","article-title":"Transforming oilseed blends: The impact of low moisture extrusion on antinutritional factors, protein structure, and nutritional value","volume":"484","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2013.11.023","article-title":"High moisture extrusion cooking of pea protein isolates: Raw material characteristics, extruder responses, and texture properties","volume":"127","author":"Osen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14123","DOI":"10.1111\/jfpp.14123","article-title":"Physicochemical and functional characteristics of plant protein-based meat analogs","volume":"43","author":"Samard","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Food Process. Preserv."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2023.111567","article-title":"Extrusion of high moisture meat analogues from hempseed protein concentrate and oat fibre residue","volume":"354","author":"Zahari","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-022-02923-z","article-title":"Effect of extrusion on the functional, textural and colour characteristics of texturized hempseed protein","volume":"16","author":"Rajendra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"C318","article-title":"Effects of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil press cake and decaffeinated green tea leaves (Camellia sinensis) on functional characteristics of gluten free crackers","volume":"79","author":"Tsao","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1002\/star.201000095","article-title":"Rheological and calorimetric properties of corn, wheat, and cassava starches and soybean protein concentrate composites","volume":"63","author":"Colombo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Starch St\u00e4rke"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100254","DOI":"10.1002\/star.202100254","article-title":"Effects of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber from corn bran on pasting, thermal, and structural properties of corn starch","volume":"74","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Starch St\u00e4rke"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2797","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0300341","article-title":"A three component interaction among starch, protein, and free fatty acids revealed by pasting profiles","volume":"51","author":"Zhang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2016.05.033","article-title":"Proteomic characterization of hempseed (Cannabis sativa L.)","volume":"147","author":"Aiello","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2836(05)80040-3","article-title":"Crystallographic characterization and molecular symmetry of edestin, a legumin from hemp","volume":"235","author":"Patel","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2024.130120","article-title":"Viscoelastic behavior, gelation properties and structural characterization of Deccan hemp seed (Hibiscus cannabinus) protein: Influence of protein and ionic concentrations, pH, and temperature","volume":"263","author":"Dash","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jung, H., Gu, B., and Jung, D. (2026). Upcycled Apple Pomace as an Innovative Ingredient in High Moisture Meat Analogs: Sustainable Valorization for Food Production. Sustainability, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/su18010475"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.1988.tb13550.x","article-title":"Moisture sorption characteristics of several food fibers","volume":"53","author":"Cadden","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Karkle, E.N.L. (2011). Carbohydrate Components of Pomace in Corn Based Extrudates: Interactions, Expansion Dynamics, and Structure Texture Relationships. [Ph.D. Thesis, Kansas State University]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12517","article-title":"Hempseed in food industry: Nutritional value, health benefits, and industrial applications","volume":"19","author":"Leonard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.140026","article-title":"Impact of soy pea protein isolate oil interactions on the physicochemical and structural properties of high moisture texturized proteins under different oil concentrations","volume":"300","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"vvae080","DOI":"10.1093\/ijfood\/vvae080","article-title":"Textural properties of plant-based meat analogue extrudates enriched with pineapple processing by product powder","volume":"60","author":"Lu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2020.102421","article-title":"Effect of the extrusion process on allergen reduction and the texture change of soybean protein isolate corn and soybean flour corn mixtures","volume":"64","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1953","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.13137","article-title":"Legume byproducts as ingredients for food applications: Preparation, nutrition, bioactivity, and techno functional properties","volume":"22","author":"Nartea","year":"2023","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1080\/87559129.2024.2396855","article-title":"Recent research advances in meat analogues: A comprehensive review on production, protein sources, quality attributes, analytical techniques used, and consumer perception","volume":"41","author":"Baig","year":"2025","journal-title":"Food Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2023.115494","article-title":"High moisture meat analogues from hemp-The effect of co extrusion with wheat gluten and chickpea proteins on the textural properties and sensorial attributes","volume":"189","author":"Zahari","year":"2023","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2011.06.002","article-title":"Effects of the addition of hemp powder on the physicochemical properties and energy bar qualities of extruded rice","volume":"129","author":"Norajit","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103486","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2023.103486","article-title":"Effect of high moisture extrusion process on quality attribute and fibrous formation mechanism of pea protein: Insight into dynamic changes of textural protein","volume":"89","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-023-03225-8","article-title":"Effects of feed moisture content on the physical and nutritional quality attributes of sunflower meal based high moisture meat analogues","volume":"17","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.3746\/jkfn.2022.51.10.1084","article-title":"Effects of Brewer\u2019s Spent Yeast Content on the Physicochemical Properties of Extruded High Moisture Meat Analog","volume":"51","author":"Jeon","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Korean Soc. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Trinh, K.T., and Glasgow, S. (2012, January 23\u201326). On the texture profile analysis test. Proceedings of the Chemeca, Wellington, New Zealand."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2621.2000.tb15991.x","article-title":"Texture and chemical characteristics of soy protein meat analog extruded at high moisture","volume":"65","author":"Lin","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamad Mazlan, M., Talib, R.A., Chin, N.L., Shukri, R., Taip, F.S., Mohd Nor, M.Z., and Abdullah, N. (2020). Physical and microstructure properties of oyster mushroom soy protein meat analog via single screw extrusion. Foods, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods9081023"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/ijfs.13963","article-title":"Dynamic mechanical properties and fractal analysis of texturized soybean protein wheat gluten composite produced by high moisture extrusion","volume":"54","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfoodeng.2008.06.032","article-title":"Soy protein fortified expanded extrudates: Baseline study using normal corn starch","volume":"90","author":"Alavi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Food Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2009.08.010","article-title":"Recovery and upgrading bovine rumen protein by extrusion: Effect of lipid content on protein disulphide cross linking, solubility and molecular weight","volume":"84","author":"Vaz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeon, Y.-H., Gu, B.-J., and Ryu, G.-H. (2023). Investigating the potential of full-fat soy as an alternative ingredient in the manufacture of low- and high-moisture meat analogs. Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12051011"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/jtxs.12697","article-title":"The texture of plant protein-based meat analogs by high moisture extrusion: A review","volume":"54","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Texture Stud."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"AACC International (1999). Approved Methods of Analysis, AACC International. [11th ed.]. Method 76 21.01."}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/9\/773\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T10:12:03Z","timestamp":1788257523000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/12\/9\/773"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["gels12090773"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels12090773","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]]}}}