{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T19:08:03Z","timestamp":1772824083944,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]],"date-time":"2021-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640217600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Porous carbons, originated from resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) gels, show high application potential. However, the kinetics and mechanism of RF condensation are still not well described. In this work, different methods (dynamic light scattering\u2013DLS, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy\u2013FTIR, low field 1H nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometry\u20131H-NMR, and differential scanning calorimetry\u2013DSC) were used to follow the isothermal RF condensation of mixtures varying in catalyst content (Na2CO3) and reactant concentration. The applicability and results obtained by the methods used differ significantly. The changes in functional groups can be followed by FTIR only at very early stages of the reaction. DLS enables the estimate of the growth of particles in reaction solution, but only before the solution becomes more viscous. Following the relaxation of 1H nuclei in water during RF condensation brings a different view on the system\u2014this technique follows the properties of the present water that is gradually captured in polymeric gel. From this side, the process behaves similarly to the nucleation reaction, which is in contradiction to the n-order mechanism confirmed by other techniques. The widest range of applicability was found for DSC measurement of the freezing\/melting behavior of the reaction mixture, which is possible to use without any limitations until full solidification. Furthermore, this approach enables us to follow the gradual formation and development of the gel through the intermediate undergoing glass transition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8010008","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]],"date-time":"2021-12-23T02:01:19Z","timestamp":1640224879000},"page":"8","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Kinetics of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Condensation\u2014Comparison of Common Experimental Techniques"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0027-025X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Kinnertov\u00e1","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, 30. dubna 22, 70103 Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3251-8640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"V\u00e1clav","family":"Slov\u00e1k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, 30. dubna 22, 70103 Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6700-5576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roman","family":"Mar\u0161\u00e1lek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, 30. dubna 22, 70103 Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4748-7488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Mucha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, 30. dubna 22, 70103 Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2004.10.022","article-title":"Carbon Aerogels for Catalysis Applications: An Overview","volume":"43","year":"2005","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1007\/s10971-016-4256-0","article-title":"Removal of Lead(II), Copper(II), Cobalt(II) and Nickel(II) Ions from Aqueous Solutions Using Carbon Gels","volume":"81","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1002\/slct.201904126","article-title":"Reverse Microemulsion Synthesis of Mesopore Phloroglucinol-Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Carbon Aerogel Microsphere as Nano-Platinum Catalyst Support for ORR","volume":"5","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"ChemistrySelect"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electacta.2010.03.040","article-title":"Carbon Aerogels as Electrode Material for Electrical Double Layer Supercapacitors\u2014Synthesis and Properties","volume":"55","author":"Halama","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009629423578","article-title":"Carbon Aerogels as Electrode Material in Supercapacitors","volume":"4","author":"Fischer","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Porous Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2017.03.016","article-title":"Carbon Xerogel as Gas Diffusion Layer in PEM Fuel Cells","volume":"42","author":"Trefilov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5851841","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/5851841","article-title":"Investigation of the Characteristic Properties of Glacial Acetic Acid-Catalyzed Carbon Xerogels and Their Electrochemical Performance for Use as Electrode Materials in Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors","volume":"2017","author":"Quach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4904","DOI":"10.1021\/ac030146r","article-title":"A Graphitized-Carbon Monolithic Column","volume":"75","author":"Liang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micromeso.2015.10.044","article-title":"A Visual Validation of the Combined Effect of PH and Dilution on the Porosity of Carbon Xerogels","volume":"223","author":"Arenillas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microporous Mesoporous Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200390020","article-title":"Preparation and Properties of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Organic and Carbon Gels","volume":"15","author":"Ritter","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C4-33","DOI":"10.1051\/jphyscol:1989406","article-title":"A synthetic route to organic aerogels\u2014mechanism, structure, and properties","volume":"24","author":"Pekala","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Phys. Colloq."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1006\/jcis.1998.5770","article-title":"SAXS Study on Gelation Process in Preparation of Resorcinol\u2013Formaldehyde Aerogel","volume":"206","author":"Tamon","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1006\/jcis.2001.8006","article-title":"Dynamic and Static Light Scattering Study on the Sol-Gel Transition of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Aqueous Solution","volume":"245","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2013.05.062","article-title":"Mechanism and Kinetics of Nanostructure Evolution during Early Stages of Resorcinol\u2013Formaldehyde Polymerisation","volume":"406","author":"Gaca","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10231","DOI":"10.1021\/la502394u","article-title":"Gelation Mechanism of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Gels Investigated by Dynamic Light Scattering","volume":"30","author":"Taylor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11215","DOI":"10.1021\/jp050610r","article-title":"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies of Resorcinol\u2212Formaldehyde Aerogels","volume":"109","author":"Moudrakovski","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4628(20000401)75:14<1760::AID-APP10>3.0.CO;2-V","article-title":"Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Reactions in Dilute Solution Observed by Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy","volume":"75","author":"Christiansen","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2016.12.069","article-title":"Kinetics of Early Stages of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Polymerization Investigated by Solution Phase Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy","volume":"110","author":"Gaca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymer.2015.05.016","article-title":"On the Synthesis and Structure of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Polymeric Networks\u2014Precursors to 3D-Carbon Macroassemblies","volume":"69","author":"Lewicki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1016\/0032-3861(81)90019-7","article-title":"Study of the Reaction between Resorcinol and Formaldehyde","volume":"22","author":"Osredkar","year":"1981","journal-title":"Polymer"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-018-7532-0","article-title":"Kinetics of Resorcinol\u2013Formaldehyde Polycondensation by DSC","volume":"134","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polymertesting.2020.106584","article-title":"Online Real Time Determination of Free Formaldehyde Content during Polymerization Process of Phenolic Resin by NIR Spectra and a Modeling-Free Method","volume":"93","author":"Lian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Polym. Test."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnoncrysol.2017.11.048","article-title":"Mechanical Properties of Isocyanate Crosslinked Resorcinol Formaldehyde Aerogels","volume":"481","author":"Aghabararpour","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"075059","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1591\/ab1888","article-title":"Effect of Crosslinker Molecular Structure on Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Resorcinol Formaldehyde Aerogel","volume":"6","author":"Aghabararpour","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1080\/0371750X.2010.11090822","article-title":"Some Studies on the Synthesis and Characterization of Carbon Aerogel","volume":"69","author":"Shariff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans. Indian Ceram. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16103","DOI":"10.1021\/la102499h","article-title":"Chemical Interactions of Surface-Active Agents with Growing Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Gels","volume":"26","year":"2010","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012036","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/869\/1\/012036","article-title":"Characterization of Pure and Composite Resorcinol Formaldehyde Aerogels Doped with Silver","volume":"869","author":"Attia","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6138","DOI":"10.1021\/cm071572m","article-title":"Time-Efficient Acid-Catalyzed Synthesis of Resorcinol\u2212Formaldehyde Aerogels","volume":"19","author":"Mulik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Mater."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Socrates, G. (2007). Infrared and Raman Characteristic Group Frequencies: Tables and Charts, John Wiley. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"5341242","article-title":"Freeze-Concentrated Phase and State Transition Temperatures of Mixtures of Low and High Molecular Weight Cryoprotectants","volume":"2019","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Polym. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"287","article-title":"Phase Transitions and Transformations in Food Systems","volume":"Volume 20062038","author":"Heldman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Handbook of Food Engineering"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1177","DOI":"10.1007\/s10973-013-2946-1","article-title":"Hydration and Drying of Various Polysaccharides Studied Using DSC","volume":"113","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Therm. Anal. Calorim."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tca.2017.12.017","article-title":"Influence of Catalyst Amount on Properties of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Xerogels","volume":"660","year":"2018","journal-title":"Thermochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tca.2011.03.034","article-title":"ICTAC Kinetics Committee Recommendations for Performing Kinetic Computations on Thermal Analysis Data","volume":"520","author":"Vyazovkin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Thermochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17315","DOI":"10.1021\/jp062746a","article-title":"Solid-State Kinetic Models: Basics and Mathematical Fundamentals","volume":"110","author":"Khawam","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnoncrysol.2004.06.029","article-title":"Accelerating the Synthesis of Carbon Aerogel Precursors","volume":"350","author":"Wiener","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Non-Cryst. Solids"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1007\/s10965-017-1368-3","article-title":"Study of Autocorrelation Function of Polymer and Polymer\u2013Nanocomposite Solutions Using Dynamic Light Scattering Method","volume":"24","author":"Mondal","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Polym. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakhmutov, V.I. (2004). Practical NMR Relaxation for Chemists, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470094486"}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/8\/1\/8\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:51:40Z","timestamp":1760169100000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/8\/1\/8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["gels8010008"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels8010008","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]]}}}