{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T00:51:28Z","timestamp":1780361488868,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,15]],"date-time":"2023-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1684108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI) National Science, Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF)","award":["4232842"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4232842"]}]},{"name":"Thailand Science Research and Innovation (TSRI) National Science, Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF)","award":["PHD\/0193\/2561"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PHD\/0193\/2561"]}]},{"name":"Royal Golden Jubilee","award":["4232842"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4232842"]}]},{"name":"Royal Golden Jubilee","award":["PHD\/0193\/2561"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PHD\/0193\/2561"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oral candidiasis encompasses fungal infections of the tongue and other oral mucosal sites with fungal overgrowth and its invasion of superficial oral tissues. Borneol was assessed in this research as the matrix-forming agent of clotrimazole-loaded in situ forming gel (ISG) comprising clove oil as the co-active agent and N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) as a solvent. Their physicochemical properties, including pH, density, viscosity, surface tension, contact angle, water tolerance, gel formation, and drug release\/permeation, were determined. Their antimicrobial activities were tested using agar cup diffusion. The pH values of clotrimazole-loaded borneol-based ISGs were in the range of 5.59\u20136.61, which are close to the pH of 6.8 of saliva. Increasing the borneol content in the formulation slightly decreased the density, surface tension, water tolerance, and spray angle but increased the viscosity and gel formation. The borneol matrix formation from NMP removal promoted a significantly (p &lt; 0.05) higher contact angle of the borneol-loaded ISGs on agarose gel and porcine buccal mucosa than those of all borneol-free solutions. Clotrimazole-loaded ISG containing 40% borneol demonstrated appropriate physicochemical properties and rapid gel formation at microscopic and macroscopic levels. In addition, it prolonged drug release with a maximum flux of 370 \u00b5g\u00b7cm\u22122 at 2 days. The borneol matrix generated from this ISG obsentively controlled the drug penetration through the porcine buccal membrane. Most clotrimazole amounts still remained in formulation at the donor part and then the buccal membrane and receiving medium, repectively. Therefore, the borneol matrix extended the drug release and penetration through the buccal membrane efficiently. Some accumulated clotrimazole in tissue should exhibit its potential antifugal activity against microbes invading the host tissue. The other predominant drug release into the saliva of the oral cavity should influence the pathogen of oropharyngeal candidiasis. Clotrimazole-loaded ISG demonstrated efficacious inhibition of growth against S. aureus, E. coli, C. albicans, C. krusei, C. Lusitaniae, and C. tropicalis. Consequently, the clotrimazole-loaded ISG exhibited great potential as a drug delivery system for oropharyngeal candidiasis treatment by localized spraying.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9050412","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,16]],"date-time":"2023-05-16T02:27:04Z","timestamp":1684204024000},"page":"412","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Clotrimazole-Loaded Borneol-Based In Situ Forming Gel as Oral Sprays for Oropharyngeal Candidiasis Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Nutdanai","family":"Lertsuphotvanit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarun","family":"Tuntarawongsa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Intellectual Center \u201cPrachote Plengwittaya\u201d, Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand"},{"name":"Natural Bioactive and Material for Health Promotion and Drug Delivery System Group (NBM), Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6753-0175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kritamorn","family":"Jitrangsri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Engineering and Technology, Walailak University, Nakhon Srithammarat 80160, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8851-8386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thawatchai","family":"Phaechamud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Pharmaceutical Technology, Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand"},{"name":"Natural Bioactive and Material for Health Promotion and Drug Delivery System Group (NBM), Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand"},{"name":"Department of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ayuningtyas, N.F., Mahdani, F.Y., Pasaribu, T.A.S., Chalim, M., Ayna, V.K.P., Santosh, A.B.R., Santacroce, L., and Surboyo, M.D.C. 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