{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T13:06:37Z","timestamp":1784725597423,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,26]],"date-time":"2023-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1687737600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["82101162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82101162"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["YXKC2021027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YXKC2021027"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["21JCQN002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JCQN002"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["21JCZD002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JCZD002"]}]},{"name":"Health science and Technology Innovation Outstanding Young talents training program of Henan Province","award":["82101162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82101162"]}]},{"name":"Health science and Technology Innovation Outstanding Young talents training program of Henan Province","award":["YXKC2021027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YXKC2021027"]}]},{"name":"Health science and Technology Innovation Outstanding Young talents training program of Henan Province","award":["21JCQN002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JCQN002"]}]},{"name":"Health science and Technology Innovation Outstanding Young talents training program of Henan Province","award":["21JCZD002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JCZD002"]}]},{"name":"Basic Research Project of Henan Eye Institute","award":["82101162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82101162"]}]},{"name":"Basic Research Project of Henan Eye Institute","award":["YXKC2021027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YXKC2021027"]}]},{"name":"Basic Research Project of Henan Eye Institute","award":["21JCQN002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JCQN002"]}]},{"name":"Basic Research Project of Henan Eye Institute","award":["21JCZD002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21JCZD002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Gels"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The human eye is a consolidated organ with delicate structures and unique immune privileges. Ocular diseases are intractable due to the intrinsic biological barriers within the eyeball. Hydrogels are excellent drug-carrying substances with soft material and excellent properties. They have been extensively used to deliver drugs into ocular tissue via iontophoresis devices. Ophthalmic iontophoresis is an electrochemical technique using tiny electrical currents to deliver drugs into the eye non-invasively. The early infantile iontophoresis technique often required long applying time to achieve therapeutic dose in the posterior ocular segment. The potential limitations in the initial drug concentration and the maximum safe currents would also impede the efficiency and safety of iontophoresis. Moreover, the poor patient compliance always leads to mechanical damage to the cornea and sclera during application. Advantageously, the flexible drug-carrying hydrogel can be in direct contact with the eye during iontophoresis, thereby reducing mechanical damage to the ocular surface. Moreover, the water absorption and adjustable permeability of hydrogels can reduce the electrochemical (EC) reactions and enhance the efficiency of iontophoresis. In this review, we focus on recent developments of hydrogels iontophoresis in ophthalmologic practice. Refinements of the knowledge would provide an outlook for future application of hydrogels in treating ocular disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/gels9070519","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,27]],"date-time":"2023-06-27T02:11:22Z","timestamp":1687831882000},"page":"519","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Application of Hydrogels in the Device of Ophthalmic Iontophoresis: Theory, Developments and Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Dong","family":"Wei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Eye Institute, Henan Eye Hospital, Henan Provincial People\u2019s Hospital (People\u2019s Hospital of Zhengzhou University), Zhengzhou 450003, China"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ning","family":"Pu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Eye Institute, Henan Eye Hospital, Henan Provincial People\u2019s Hospital (People\u2019s Hospital of Zhengzhou University), Zhengzhou 450003, China"},{"name":"College of Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Si-Yu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Na","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zong-Ming","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Eye Institute, Henan Eye Hospital, Henan Provincial People\u2019s Hospital (People\u2019s Hospital of Zhengzhou University), Zhengzhou 450003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ye","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Eye Institute, Henan Eye Hospital, Henan Provincial People\u2019s Hospital (People\u2019s Hospital of Zhengzhou University), Zhengzhou 450003, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2016.1227783","article-title":"Recent perspectives on the delivery of biologics to back of the eye","volume":"14","author":"Joseph","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2165736","DOI":"10.1080\/10717544.2023.2165736","article-title":"Application of iontophoresis in ophthalmic practice: An innovative strategy to deliver drugs into the eye","volume":"30","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/164_2016_84","article-title":"ocular drug delivery","volume":"242","author":"Yavuz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Handb. Exp. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.2001.1098","article-title":"Transscleral Coulomb-controlled Iontophoresis of Methylprednisolone into the Rabbit Eye: Influence of Duration of Treatment, Current Intensity and Drug Concentration on Ocular Tissue and Fluid Levels","volume":"74","author":"Gautier","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2107315","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202107315","article-title":"A Hydrogel Ionic Circuit Based High-Intensity Iontophoresis Device for Intraocular Macromolecule and Nanoparticle Delivery","volume":"34","author":"Zhao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1163\/156856204323005271","article-title":"Hydrogel probe for iontophoresis drug delivery to the eye","volume":"15","author":"Raiskup","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-4835(03)00215-X","article-title":"Iontophoresis\u2013gentamicin delivery into the rabbit cornea, using a hydrogel delivery probe","volume":"78","author":"Mechoulam","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2543","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.03-1294","article-title":"Delivery of gentamicin to the rabbit eye by drug-loaded hydrogel iontophoresis","volume":"45","author":"Raiskup","year":"2004","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmology Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ico.0000243959.14651.18","article-title":"Iontophoretic Treatment of Experimental Pseudomonas Keratitis in Rabbit Eyes Using Gentamicin-Loaded Hydrogels","volume":"25","author":"Raiskup","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cornea"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1080\/02713680701528674","article-title":"Methotrexate Delivery to the Eye Using Transscleral Hydrogel Iontophoresis","volume":"32","author":"Domb","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2005.05.020","article-title":"Transcorneal and transscleral iontophoresis of dexamethasone phosphate using drug loaded hydrogel","volume":"106","author":"Raiskup","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1080\/02713680701871140","article-title":"In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Carboplatin Delivery to the Eye Using Hydrogel-Iontophoresis","volume":"33","author":"Domb","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2007.11.016","article-title":"Charged nanoparticles delivery to the eye using hydrogel iontophoresis","volume":"126","author":"Orucov","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2021.04.008","article-title":"Challenges and strategies for the delivery of biologics to the cornea","volume":"333","author":"Wels","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.2012.0200","article-title":"Novel Strategies for Anterior Segment Ocular Drug Delivery","volume":"29","author":"Cholkar","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2021.120924","article-title":"Drug delivery to the anterior segment of the eye: A review of current and future treatment strategies","volume":"607","author":"Mofidfar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2018.1406918","article-title":"Transscleral passive and iontophoretic transport: Theory and analysis","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"171","article-title":"Topical drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye: Anatomical and physiological considerations","volume":"63","author":"Loftsson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pharmazie"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1159\/000108117","article-title":"Transport Barriers in Transscleral Drug Delivery for Retinal Diseases","volume":"39","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.08.138","article-title":"A review on recent drug delivery systems for posterior segment of eye","volume":"107","author":"Nayak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.1990.41","article-title":"Permeability of ocular vessels and transport across the blood-retinal-barrier","volume":"4","author":"Alm","year":"1990","journal-title":"Eye"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"S36","article-title":"The Blood-Aqueous Barrier in Health and Disease","volume":"23","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2010.12.004","article-title":"Drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye","volume":"16","author":"Thrimawithana","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1159\/000455276","article-title":"Drug Delivery to the Posterior Segment of the Eye","volume":"58","author":"Moisseiev","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3797\/scipharm.1108-20","article-title":"Iontophoresis: A potential emergence of a transdermal drug delivery system","volume":"80","author":"Dhote","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2004.048314","article-title":"Iodide iontophoresis as a treatment for dry eye syndrome","volume":"89","author":"Schmut","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2008.04.009","article-title":"Non-invasive gene transfer by iontophoresis for therapy of an inherited retinal degeneration","volume":"87","author":"Souied","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1940","article-title":"CiprofloxQcin Iontophoresis for Aminoglycoside-Resistant Pseudomonol Kerafifis","volume":"31","author":"Hobden","year":"1990","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2017.07.065","article-title":"Non-invasive strategies for targeting the posterior segment of eye","volume":"530","author":"Madni","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2005.09.049","article-title":"Iontophoresis: A non-invasive ocular drug delivery","volume":"110","author":"Domb","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2006.11.001","article-title":"Examination of penetration routes and distribution of ionic permeants during and after transscleral iontophoresis with magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"335","author":"Molokhia","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"e30658","article-title":"Iontophoresis as an Effective Drug Delivery System in Dentistry: A Review","volume":"14","author":"Ragit","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wanasathop, A., and Li, S.K. (2018). Iontophoretic Drug Delivery in the Oral Cavity. Pharmaceutics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics10030121"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.21003","article-title":"Examination of barriers and barrier alteration in transscleral iontophoresis","volume":"97","author":"Molokhia","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1080\/17425247.2017.1266334","article-title":"Basic principles and current status of transcorneal and transscleral iontophoresis","volume":"14","author":"Gratieri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Drug Deliv."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1006\/exer.1997.0364","article-title":"Iontophoresis of dexamethasone in the treatment of endotoxin-induced-uveitis in rats","volume":"65","author":"Parel","year":"1997","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3717","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.06-0365","article-title":"Iontophoretic delivery of carboplatin in a murine model of retinoblastoma","volume":"47","author":"Hayden","year":"2006","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmology Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1159\/000069129","article-title":"Ocular Delivery of Acetylsalicylic Acid by Repetitive Coulomb-Controlled Iontophoresis","volume":"35","author":"Kralinger","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3644","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.04-0228","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics of systemic versus focal carboplatin chemotherapy in the rabbit eye: Possible implication in the treatment of retinoblastoma","volume":"45","author":"Hayden","year":"2004","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmology Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-13931","article-title":"Evaluating in vivo delivery of riboflavin with coulomb-controlled iontophoresis for corneal collagen cross-linking: A pilot study","volume":"55","author":"Arboleda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmology Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"3299","article-title":"Ocular aspirin distribution: A comparison of intravenous, topical, and coulomb-controlled iontophoresis administration","volume":"43","author":"Voigt","year":"2002","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmology Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"633","article-title":"Ocular iontophoresis of EGP-437 (dexamethasone phosphate) in dry eye patients: Results of a randomized clinical trial","volume":"5","author":"Patane","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2019.10.032","article-title":"Iontophoretic dexamethasone phosphate compared to topical prednisolone acetate 1% for noninfectious anterior segment uveitis","volume":"211","author":"Sheppard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2011.07.006","article-title":"Evaluation of Dexamethasone Phosphate Delivered by Ocular Iontophoresis for Treating Noninfectious Anterior Uveitis","volume":"119","author":"Cohen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-6420(86)33780-1","article-title":"Transscleral iontophoresis of cefazolin, ticarcillin, and gentamicin in the rabbit","volume":"93","author":"Barza","year":"1986","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"178","article-title":"Induction of genes into the rabbit eye by iontophoresis","volume":"103","author":"Asahara","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nippon. Ganka Gakkai Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.2012.0175","article-title":"Evaluation of Ocular and General Safety Following Repeated Dosing of Dexamethasone Phosphate Delivered by Transscleral Iontophoresis in Rabbits","volume":"29","author":"Patane","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-6420(89)32832-6","article-title":"Transscleral and transcorneal iontophoresis of ketoconazole in the rabbit eye","volume":"96","author":"Grossman","year":"1989","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2003.10.017","article-title":"Iontophoresis: From the lab to the bed side","volume":"78","author":"Halhal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"185","article-title":"Ocular Coulomb controlled iontophoresis (OCCI)","volume":"37","author":"Nose","year":"1996","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2021.120750","article-title":"Stable oxime-crosslinked hyaluronan-based hydrogel as a biomimetic vitreous substitute","volume":"271","author":"Baker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-5173(02)00557-4","article-title":"Effect of iontophoresis on transcorneal permeation \u2018in vitro\u2019 of two b-blocking agents, and on corneal hydration","volume":"250","author":"Monti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00170699","article-title":"A histopathologic study of retinal lesions inflicted by transscleral iontophoresis","volume":"229","author":"Lam","year":"1991","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00830-x","article-title":"Current hydrogel advances in physicochemical and biological response-driven biomedical application diversity","volume":"6","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, T.-C., Chang, C.-C., Chan, H.-P., Chung, T.-W., Shu, C.-W., Chuang, K.-P., Duh, T.-H., Yang, M.-H., and Tyan, Y.-C. (2022). Hydrogels: Properties and Applications in Biomedicine. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27092902"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2020.105503","article-title":"Hydrogel-based ocular drug delivery systems for hydrophobic drugs","volume":"154","author":"Fan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2013.07.006","article-title":"Hydrogel: Preparation, characterization, and applications: A review","volume":"6","author":"Ahmed","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bustamante-Torres, M., Romero-Fierro, D., Arcentales-Vera, B., Palomino, K., Maga\u00f1a, H., and Bucio, E. (2021). Hydrogels Classification According to the Physical or Chemical Interactions and as Stimuli-Sensitive Materials. Gels, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels7040182"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dannert, C., Stokke, B.T., and Dias, R.S. (2019). Nanoparticle-Hydrogel Composites: From Molecular Interactions to Macroscopic Behavior. Polymers, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym11020275"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demeter, M., C\u0103lina, I., Sc\u0103ri\u0219oreanu, A., and Micutz, M. (2022). E-Beam Cross-Linking of Complex Hydrogels Formulation: The Influence of Poly(Ethylene Oxide) Concentration on the Hydrogel Properties. Gels, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels8010027"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addr.2008.08.002","article-title":"Hydrogel nanoparticles in drug delivery","volume":"60","author":"Hamidi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2020.05.041","article-title":"Nanoparticle\u2013hydrogel superstructures for biomedical applications","volume":"10","author":"Jiang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gun\u2019ko, V.M., Savina, I.N., and Mikhalovsky, S.V. (2017). Properties of Water Bound in Hydrogels. Gels, 3.","DOI":"10.3390\/gels3040037"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1039\/D0BM01373K","article-title":"Hydrogel facilitated bioelectronic integration","volume":"9","author":"Vo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2016.09.020","article-title":"Electroconductive natural polymer-based hydrogels","volume":"111","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1039\/D1TB01345A","article-title":"Synthesis, classification and properties of hydrogels: Their applications in drug delivery and agriculture","volume":"10","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1002\/bit.22911","article-title":"Characterization of protein release from hydrolytically degradable poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels","volume":"108","author":"Zustiak","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioeng."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2021.01.005","article-title":"Affinity Hydrogels for Protein Delivery","volume":"42","author":"Abune","year":"2021","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1002\/mabi.201500245","article-title":"Long-Term Controlled Protein Release from Poly(Ethylene Glycol) Hydrogels by Modulating Mesh Size and Degradation","volume":"15","author":"Tong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Macromol. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101820","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.202101820","article-title":"Hydrogels and Hydrogel Nanocomposites: Enhancing Healthcare through Human and Environmental Treatment","volume":"11","author":"Gutierrez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1021\/js980222j","article-title":"Evaluation of pluronic F127-based sustained-release ocular delivery systems for pilocarpine using the albino rabbit eye model","volume":"87","author":"Desai","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1111\/jphp.12132","article-title":"Topical delivery of ocular therapeutics: Carrier systems and physical methods","volume":"66","author":"Souza","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00189359","article-title":"Efficacy of iontophoresis in the rat cornea","volume":"234","author":"Solomon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"909","article-title":"Regional ocular gentamicin levels after transcorneal and transscleral iontophoresis","volume":"31","author":"Grossman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1089\/jop.1999.15.251","article-title":"The distribution of gentamicin in the rabbit cornea following iontophoresis to the central cornea","volume":"15","author":"Goren","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pmbts.2015.04.001","article-title":"Overview of the Cornea: Structure, Function, and Development","volume":"134","author":"Eghrari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Mol. Biol. Transl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevTherDrugCarrierSyst.v22.i2.10","article-title":"Hydrogels for Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications","volume":"22","author":"Kashyap","year":"2005","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Ther. Drug Carr. Syst."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.119.10.1518","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and toxicity of intravitreal chemotherapy for primary intraocular lymphoma","volume":"119","author":"Velez","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Biesheuvel, P.M., Porada, S., and Dykstra, J.E. (2018). The difference between Faradaic and non-Faradaic electrode processes. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Godula-Jopek, A., and Stolten, D. (2015). Hydrogen Production: By Electrolysis, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527676507"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Abe, I. (2009). Energy Carriers and Conversion Systems with Emphasis on Hydrogen, Eolss Publications."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1089\/108076803321637672","article-title":"Tolerance of ocular iontophoresis in healthy volunteers","volume":"19","author":"Parkinson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.01.057","article-title":"An ocular iontophoretic device using PEDOT electrode for local drug delivery","volume":"237","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."}],"container-title":["Gels"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/9\/7\/519\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:01:27Z","timestamp":1760126487000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2310-2861\/9\/7\/519"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,26]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]}},"alternative-id":["gels9070519"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/gels9070519","relation":{},"ISSN":["2310-2861"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2310-2861","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,26]]}}}