{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T15:09:28Z","timestamp":1789571368333,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653436800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Eye Institute","award":["R01EY028118"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY028118"]}]},{"name":"National Eye Institute","award":["R01EY021242"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY021242"]}]},{"name":"National Eye Institute","award":["P30EY01730"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30EY01730"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nearsightedness (myopia) is a global health problem of staggering proportions that has driven the hunt for environmental and genetic risk factors in hopes of gaining insight into the underlying mechanism and providing new avenues of intervention. Myopia is the dominant risk factor for leading causes of blindness, including myopic maculopathy and retinal detachment. The fundamental defect in myopia\u2014an excessively elongated eyeball\u2014causes blurry distance vision that is correctable with lenses or surgery, but the risk of blindness remains. Haplotypes of the long-wavelength and middle-wavelength cone opsin genes (OPN1LW and OPN1MW, respectively) that exhibit profound exon-3 skipping during pre-messenger RNA splicing are associated with high myopia. Cone photoreceptors expressing these haplotypes are nearly devoid of photopigment. Conversely, cones in the same retina that express non-skipping haplotypes are relatively full of photopigment. We hypothesized that abnormal contrast signals arising from adjacent cones differing in photopigment content stimulate axial elongation, and spectacles that reduce contrast may significantly slow myopia progression. We tested for an association between spherical equivalent refraction and OPN1LW haplotype in males of European ancestry as determined by long-distance PCR and Sanger sequencing and identified OPN1LW exon 3 haplotypes that increase the risk of common myopia. We also evaluated the effects of contrast-reducing spectacles lenses on myopia progression in children. The work presented here provides new insight into the cause and prevention of myopia progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes13060942","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:41:33Z","timestamp":1653468093000},"page":"942","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Insight from OPN1LW Gene Haplotypes into the Cause and Prevention of Myopia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5404-3343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maureen","family":"Neitz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa","family":"Wagner-Schuman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica S.","family":"Rowlan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James A.","family":"Kuchenbecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3877-6712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jay","family":"Neitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1038\/519276a","article-title":"The myopia boom","volume":"519","author":"Dolgin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Myopia and High Myopia and Temporal Trends from 2000 through 2050","volume":"123","author":"Holden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.4103\/ijo.IJO_1564_21","article-title":"Physical activity, time spent outdoors, and near work in relation to myopia prevalence, incidence, and progression: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses","volume":"70","author":"Karthikeyan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Indian J. 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