{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T08:21:29Z","timestamp":1775809289686,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]],"date-time":"2022-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655683200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004440","name":"Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowships in Biomedical Sciences to CSW","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101893\/Z\/13\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101893\/Z\/13\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004440","name":"Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowships in Biomedical Sciences to CSW","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["217188\/Z\/19\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["217188\/Z\/19\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004440","name":"Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowships in Biomedical Sciences to CSW","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INV-006003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-006003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation grant to CSW","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["101893\/Z\/13\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101893\/Z\/13\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation grant to CSW","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["217188\/Z\/19\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["217188\/Z\/19\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation grant to CSW","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["INV-006003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INV-006003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Leucine-rich repeat proteins and antimicrobial peptides are the key components of the innate immune response to Plasmodium and other microbial pathogens in Anopheles mosquitoes. The APL1 gene of the malaria vector Anopheles funestus has exceptional levels of non-synonymous polymorphism across the range of An. funestus, with an average \u03c0n of 0.027 versus a genome-wide average of 0.002, and \u03c0n is consistently high in populations across Africa. Elevated APL1 diversity was consistent between the independent pooled-template and target-enrichment datasets, however no link between APL1 diversity and insecticide resistance was observed. Although lacking the diversity of APL1, two further mosquito innate-immunity genes of the gambicin anti-microbial peptide family had \u03c0n\/\u03c0s ratios greater than one, possibly driven by either positive or balancing selection. The cecropin antimicrobial peptides were expressed much more highly than other anti-microbial peptide genes, a result discordant with current models of anti-microbial peptide activity. The observed APL1 diversity likely results from gene conversion between paralogues, as evidenced by shared polymorphisms, overlapping read mappings, and recombination events among paralogues. In conclusion, we hypothesize that higher gene expression of APL1 than its paralogues is correlated with a more open chromatin formation, which enhances gene conversion and elevated diversity at this locus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes13061102","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]],"date-time":"2022-06-21T01:43:27Z","timestamp":1655775807000},"page":"1102","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Gene Conversion Explains Elevated Diversity in the Immunity Modulating APL1 Gene of the Malaria Vector Anopheles funestus"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3358-4949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jack","family":"Hearn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5395-767X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacob M.","family":"Riveron","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"},{"name":"LSTM Research Unit, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 13591, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Helen","family":"Irving","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gareth D.","family":"Weedall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0791-3673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charles S.","family":"Wondji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK"},{"name":"LSTM Research Unit, Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases (CRID), Yaound\u00e9 P.O. 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