{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T17:06:33Z","timestamp":1790787993662,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIAAA"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) encompasses the range of deleterious outcomes of prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) in the affected offspring, including developmental delay, intellectual disability, attention deficits, and conduct disorders. Several factors contribute to the risk for and severity of FASD, including the timing, dose, and duration of PAE and maternal factors such as age and nutrition. Although poorly understood, genetic factors also contribute to the expression of FASD, with studies in both humans and animal models revealing genetic influences on susceptibility. In this article, we review the literature related to the genetics of FASD in humans, including twin studies, candidate gene studies in different populations, and genetic testing identifying copy number variants. Overall, these studies suggest different genetic factors, both in the mother and in the offspring, influence the phenotypic outcomes of PAE. While further work is needed, understanding how genetic factors influence FASD will provide insight into the mechanisms contributing to alcohol teratogenicity and FASD risk and ultimately may lead to means for early detection and intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes14010195","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]],"date-time":"2023-01-12T02:28:44Z","timestamp":1673490524000},"page":"195","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Genetic Influences on Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Danielle","family":"Sambo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 5625 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20852, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Goldman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 5625 Fishers Lane, Rockville, MD 20852, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"86","article-title":"Prenatal alcohol exposure and miscarriage, stillbirth, preterm delivery, and sudden infant death syndrome","volume":"34","author":"Bailey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20154256","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2015-4256","article-title":"Updated Clinical Guidelines for Diagnosing Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"138","author":"Hoyme","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.21896","article-title":"Prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders in 4 US Communities","volume":"319","author":"May","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2017.1919","article-title":"Global Prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder Among Children and Youth: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"171","author":"Lange","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.alcohol.2017.05.004","article-title":"Challenges of diagnosing fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in foster and adopted children","volume":"67","author":"Bakhireva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morleo, M., Woolfall, K., Dedman, D., Mukherjee, R., Bellis, M.A., and Cook, P.A. (2011). Under-reporting of foetal alcohol spectrum disorders: An analysis of hospital episode statistics. BMC Pediatr., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-11-14"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)01345-8","article-title":"Comorbidity of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"387","author":"Popova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(99)70164-2","article-title":"Under-recognition of prenatal alcohol effects in infants of known alcohol abusing women","volume":"135","author":"Stoler","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/0892-0362(95)00005-C","article-title":"An update on incidence of FAS: FAS is not an equal opportunity birth defect","volume":"17","author":"Abel","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"279","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"72","author":"Wattendorf","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2007.02.028","article-title":"Alcohol dehydrogenase 1B genotype and fetal alcohol syndrome: A HuGE minireview","volume":"197","author":"Green","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"15","article-title":"Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Not as simple as it might seem","volume":"34","author":"May","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.89","article-title":"The plausibility of maternal nutritional status being a contributing factor to the risk for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: The potential influence of zinc status as an example","volume":"36","author":"Keen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biofactors"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1300\/J251v06n04_08","article-title":"The influence of socioeconomic factors on the occurrence of fetal alcohol syndrome","volume":"6","author":"Bingol","year":"1987","journal-title":"Adv. Alcohol Subst. Abus."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13066","article-title":"The Genetics of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders","volume":"40","author":"Eberhart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2000.tb04612.x","article-title":"Avian genetic background modulates the neural crest apoptosis induced by ethanol exposure","volume":"24","author":"Debelak","year":"2000","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2012.01757.x","article-title":"Gene expression changes in C57BL\/6J and DBA\/2J mice following prenatal alcohol exposure","volume":"36","author":"Downing","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.21048","article-title":"Reprogramming of genetic networks during initiation of the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome","volume":"236","author":"Green","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2014.00154","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and their transmission through genetic and epigenetic mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Mead","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1002\/pd.5731","article-title":"Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms","volume":"40","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prenat. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(75)80919-X","article-title":"Fetal alcohol syndrome in dizygotic twins","volume":"87","author":"Christoffel","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"229","article-title":"Fetal alcohol syndrome in twin pregnancy","volume":"34","author":"Chasnoff","year":"1985","journal-title":"Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"49","article-title":"Maternal alcohol and pentazocine abuse: Neonatal behavior and morphology in an opposite-sex twin pair","volume":"38","author":"Riese","year":"1989","journal-title":"Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-8994(94)90012-4","article-title":"Difference in susceptibility to teratogenic effects of alcohol in discordant twins exposed to alcohol during the second half of gestation","volume":"11","author":"Riikonen","year":"1994","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.1320470612","article-title":"Fetal alcohol syndrome in twins of alcoholic mothers: Concordance of diagnosis and IQ","volume":"47","author":"Streissguth","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"23","article-title":"Twin study confirms virtually identical prenatal alcohol exposures can lead to markedly different fetal alcohol spectrum disorder outcomes-fetal genetics influences fetal vulnerability","volume":"5","author":"Bledsoe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.53.4.490","article-title":"Congenital malformations in offspring of a chronic alcoholic mother","volume":"53","author":"Palmer","year":"1974","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s00439-009-0701-2","article-title":"Genetics of alcohol dependence","volume":"126","author":"Gelernter","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.32523","article-title":"ADH1B: From alcoholism, natural selection, and cancer to the human phenome","volume":"177","author":"Polimanti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet B Neuropsychiatr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"5","article-title":"The genetics of alcohol metabolism: Role of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase variants","volume":"30","author":"Edenberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"339","article-title":"Genes encoding enzymes involved in ethanol metabolism","volume":"34","author":"Hurley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Alcohol Res."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"22","article-title":"ALDH2, ADH1B, and ADH1C genotypes in Asians: A literature review","volume":"30","author":"Eng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1274","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2010.01205.x","article-title":"ADH1B*3 and response to alcohol in African-Americans","volume":"34","author":"McCarthy","year":"2010","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI113875","article-title":"Genotypes for aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency and alcohol sensitivity. The inactive ALDH2(2) allele is dominant","volume":"83","author":"Crabb","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brooks, P.J., Enoch, M.A., Goldman, D., Li, T.K., and Yokoyama, A. (2009). The alcohol flushing response: An unrecognized risk factor for esophageal cancer from alcohol consumption. PLoS Med., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000050"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agh089","article-title":"A pilot study of alcohol exposure and pharmacokinetics in women with or without children with fetal alcohol syndrome","volume":"39","author":"Khaole","year":"2004","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-1809.1971.tb00238.x","article-title":"Developmental changes and polymorphism in human alcohol dehydrogenase","volume":"34","author":"Smith","year":"1971","journal-title":"Ann. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-196705000-00001","article-title":"Development of alcohol dehydrogenase activity in the human liver","volume":"1","author":"Pikkarainen","year":"1967","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1095","article-title":"Alcohol dehydrogenase-2*3 allele protects against alcohol-related birth defects among African Americans","volume":"283","author":"McCarver","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1598","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ALC.0000141816.14776.97","article-title":"Alcohol dehydrogenase 2*3 affects alterations in offspring facial morphology associated with maternal ethanol intake in pregnancy","volume":"28","author":"Das","year":"2004","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2005.08.023","article-title":"Protective effects of the alcohol dehydrogenase-ADH1B allele in children exposed to alcohol during pregnancy","volume":"148","author":"Jacobson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2013.11.003","article-title":"Protective effects of the alcohol dehydrogenase-ADH1B*3 allele on attention and behavior problems in adolescents exposed to alcohol during pregnancy","volume":"41","author":"Dodge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1067\/mpd.2002.128112","article-title":"Alcohol dehydrogenase 2 genotypes, maternal alcohol use, and infant outcome","volume":"141","author":"Stoler","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1719","article-title":"Alcohol dehydrogenase-2*2 allele is associated with decreased prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome in the mixed-ancestry population of the Western Cape Province, South Africa","volume":"25","author":"Viljoen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4457","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddp388","article-title":"A non-synonymous variant in ADH1B is strongly associated with prenatal alcohol use in a European sample of pregnant women","volume":"18","author":"Zuccolo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, S.J., Zuccolo, L., Davey Smith, G., Macleod, J., Rodriguez, S., Draper, E.S., Barrow, M., Alati, R., Sayal, K., and Ring, S. (2012). Fetal alcohol exposure and IQ at age 8: Evidence from a population-based birth-cohort study. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0049407"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12486","article-title":"Moderate alcohol drinking in pregnancy increases risk for children\u2019s persistent conduct problems: Causal effects in a Mendelian randomisation study","volume":"57","author":"Murray","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2007.08.006","article-title":"Prenatal alcohol exposure, CYP17 gene polymorphisms and fetal growth restriction","volume":"138","author":"Delpisheh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"hox014","DOI":"10.1093\/hropen\/hox014","article-title":"rs10732516 polymorphism at the IGF2\/H19 locus associates with a genotype-specific trend in placental DNA methylation and head circumference of prenatally alcohol-exposed newborns","volume":"2017","author":"Marjonen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod. Open"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab081","article-title":"Polymorphisms in SLC44A1 are associated with cognitive improvement in children diagnosed with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: An exploratory study of oral choline supplementation","volume":"114","author":"Smith","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1038\/pr.2017.201","article-title":"Genetic predisposition to fetal alcohol syndrome: Association with congenital disorders of N-glycosylation","volume":"83","author":"Anton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2014.932768","article-title":"Candidate gene study for smoking, alcohol use, and body weight in a sample of pregnant women","volume":"28","author":"Wehby","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/0890-6238(93)90234-X","article-title":"Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure in mice: Influence of an ADH inhibitor and a chronic inhalation study","volume":"7","author":"Ukita","year":"1993","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/tera.1420270211","article-title":"Some teratogenic properties of ethanol and acetaldehyde in C57BL\/6J mice: Implications for the study of the fetal alcohol syndrome","volume":"27","author":"Webster","year":"1983","journal-title":"Teratology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2004.06.012","article-title":"Ethanol- and acetaldehyde-mediated developmental toxicity in zebrafish","volume":"26","author":"Reimers","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/bdra.23232","article-title":"Review of ethanol dispersion, distribution, and elimination from the fetal compartment","volume":"100","author":"Heller","year":"2014","journal-title":"Birth Defects Res. A Clin. Mol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1038\/jp.2012.57","article-title":"Prenatal alcohol exposure, blood alcohol concentrations and alcohol elimination rates for the mother, fetus and newborn","volume":"32","author":"Burd","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13490","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13490","article-title":"Epigenetic and genetic components of height regulation","volume":"7","author":"Benonisdottir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1111\/acer.13589","article-title":"Polygenic Risk Score Prediction of Alcohol Dependence Symptoms Across Population-Based and Clinically Ascertained Samples","volume":"42","author":"Savage","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2012-302125","article-title":"Diagnosing fetal alcohol syndrome: New insights from newer genetic technologies","volume":"97","author":"Douzgou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2010.04.006","article-title":"Consensus statement: Chromosomal microarray is a first-tier clinical diagnostic test for individuals with developmental disabilities or congenital anomalies","volume":"86","author":"Miller","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.a.35672","article-title":"Diagnostic outcomes of 27 children referred by pediatricians to a genetics clinic in the Netherlands with suspicion of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders","volume":"161A","author":"Abdelmalik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. A"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2017.12.046","article-title":"Utility of Genetic Testing in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder","volume":"196","author":"Jamuar","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1139\/bcb-2017-0241","article-title":"Copy number variation in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder","volume":"96","author":"Zarrei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1136\/archdischild-2020-319572","article-title":"Genetic testing in patients with possible foetal alcohol spectrum disorder","volume":"106","author":"Lam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1192","DOI":"10.1002\/mgg3.1192","article-title":"18q12.3-q21.1 microdeletion detected in the prenatally alcohol-exposed dizygotic twin with discordant fetal alcohol syndrome phenotype","volume":"8","author":"Kahila","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Genet. Genomic. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1159\/000184713","article-title":"Human copy number polymorphic genes","volume":"123","author":"Bailey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cytogenet. Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1987.tb01258.x","article-title":"Fetal alcohol syndrome associated with trisomy 21","volume":"11","author":"Bingol","year":"1987","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00444963","article-title":"Erroneous diagnosis of fetal alcohol syndrome in a patient with ring chromosome 6","volume":"146","author":"Romke","year":"1987","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"313","article-title":"[Partial monosomy 21 or fetal alcohol embryopathy in a retarded boy?]","volume":"31","author":"Muller","year":"1993","journal-title":"Padiatr. Grenzgeb."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1097\/DBP.0000000000000440","article-title":"Comorbid Mental Disorders in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review","volume":"38","author":"Weyrauch","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e181471","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2018.1471","article-title":"Twenty-Year Trends in Diagnosed Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder Among US Children and Adolescents, 1997\u20132016","volume":"1","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)66915-2","article-title":"Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"366","author":"Biederman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1111\/add.13398","article-title":"The indirect effects of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on alcohol problems in adulthood through unique facets of impulsivity","volume":"111","author":"Pedersen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Addiction"}],"container-title":["Genes"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4425\/14\/1\/195\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:03:48Z","timestamp":1760119428000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-4425\/14\/1\/195"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]}},"alternative-id":["genes14010195"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/genes14010195","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-4425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-4425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}}}