{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T00:40:38Z","timestamp":1791852038496,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1691625600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Dept. of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent decades, the use of genetic polymorphisms related to specific phenotypes, such as eye color, has greatly contributed to the development of the research field called forensic DNA phenotyping (FDP), enabling the investigators of crime cases to reduce the number of suspects, making their work faster and more precise. Eye color is a polygenic phenotype, and many genetic variants have been highlighted, with the major contributor being the HERC2-OCA2 locus, where many single nucleotide variations (SNPs) were identified. Interestingly, the HERC2-OCA2 locus, containing the intronic SNP rs12913832, the major eye color determinant, shows a high level of evolutionary conservation across many species of vertebrates. Currently, there are some genetic panels to predict eye color by genomic DNA analysis, even if the exact role of the SNP variants in the formation of eye color is still poorly understood, with a low level of predictivity in the so-called intermediate eye color. Many variants in OCA2, HERC2, and other genes lie in introns or correspond to synonymous variants, highlighting greater complexity in the mechanism of action of such genes than a simple missense variation. Here, we show the main genes involved in oculocutaneous pigmentation and their structural and functional features, as well as which genetic variants show the highest level of eye color predictivity in currently used FDP assays. Despite the great recent advances and impact of FDP in criminal cases, it is necessary to enhance scientific research to better understand the mechanism of action behind each genetic variant involved in eye color, with the goal of obtaining higher levels of prediction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes14081604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]],"date-time":"2023-08-10T10:11:22Z","timestamp":1691662282000},"page":"1604","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Forensic DNA Phenotyping: Genes and Genetic Variants for Eye Color Prediction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Desiree","family":"Brancato","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Biological, Geological, Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elvira","family":"Coniglio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Biological, Geological, Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2704-0013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Bruno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Biological, Geological, Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6389-2673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Agostini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Science and Technical Innovation, University of Eastern Piedmont, Viale Teresa Michel 11, 15121 Alessandria, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7568-5823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvatore","family":"Saccone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Biological, Geological, Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0160-9040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Concetta","family":"Federico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Biological, Geological, Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, Via Androne 81, 95124 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg1455","article-title":"Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis","volume":"5","author":"Jobling","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. 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