{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T17:35:50Z","timestamp":1791912950584,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754870400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Government of the Russian Federation","award":["388-00081-25-03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["388-00081-25-03"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sarcopenia, the progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and function with age, significantly contributes to frailty and mortality in older adults. Notably, muscles do not age uniformly\u2014some retain structure and strength well into old age. This review explores the mechanisms underlying differential resistance to muscle aging, with a focus on sarcopenia-resistant muscles. We analyzed current literature across molecular biology, genetics, and physiology to identify key regulators of muscle preservation during aging. Special attention was given to muscle fiber types, mitochondrial function, neuromuscular junctions, and satellite cell activity. Muscles dominated by slow-twitch (type I) fibers\u2014such as the soleus, diaphragm, and extraocular muscles\u2014demonstrate enhanced resistance to sarcopenia. This resilience is linked to sustained oxidative metabolism, high mitochondrial density, robust antioxidant defenses, and preserved regenerative capacity. Key molecular pathways include mTOR, PGC-1\u03b1, and SIRT1\/6, while genetic variants in ACTN3, MSTN, and FOXO3 contribute to interindividual differences. In contrast, fast-twitch muscles are more vulnerable due to lower oxidative capacity and satellite cell depletion. Unique innervation patterns and neurotrophic support further protect muscles like extraocular muscles from age-related atrophy. Resistance to sarcopenia is driven by a complex interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Understanding why specific muscles age more slowly provides insights into muscle resilience and suggests novel strategies for targeted prevention and therapy. Expanding research beyond traditionally studied muscles is essential to develop comprehensive interventions to preserve mobility and independence in aging populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16080948","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]],"date-time":"2025-08-11T17:22:07Z","timestamp":1754932927000},"page":"948","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Muscle Aging Heterogeneity: Genetic and Structural Basis of Sarcopenia Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5608-7809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angelina","family":"Titova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia"},{"name":"Federal Center of Brain Research and Neurotechnology of the Federal Medical Biological Agency (FMBA) of Russia, 117513 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8888-8395","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Airat","family":"Bilyalov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SBHI Moscow Clinical Scientific Center Named After Loginov MHD, 111123 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Life Improvement by Future Technologies (LIFT) Center, 121205 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"National Medical Research Centre of Cardiology Named After Academician E.I. Chazov, 121552 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9179-515X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikita","family":"Filatov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Life Improvement by Future Technologies (LIFT) Center, 121205 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"National Medical Research Centre of Cardiology Named After Academician E.I. Chazov, 121552 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-7637-2518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stepan","family":"Perepechenov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darya","family":"Kupriyanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Center of Brain Research and Neurotechnology of the Federal Medical Biological Agency (FMBA) of Russia, 117513 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergei","family":"Brovkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SBHI Moscow Clinical Scientific Center Named After Loginov MHD, 111123 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dmitrii","family":"Shestakov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SBHI Moscow Clinical Scientific Center Named After Loginov MHD, 111123 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Bodunova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SBHI Moscow Clinical Scientific Center Named After Loginov MHD, 111123 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oleg","family":"Gusev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Center of Brain Research and Neurotechnology of the Federal Medical Biological Agency (FMBA) of Russia, 117513 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Life Improvement by Future Technologies (LIFT) Center, 121205 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Intractable Disease Research Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Juntendo University, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Belenguer-Varea, A., Avellana-Zaragoza, J.A., Ingl\u00e9s, M., Cunha-P\u00e9rez, C., Cuesta-Peredo, D., Borr\u00e1s, C., Vi\u00f1a, J., and Tarazona-Santabalbina, F.J. 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