{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T12:55:59Z","timestamp":1784206559999,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]],"date-time":"2025-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dental caries is now recognised as a multifactorial disease shaped by complex interactions among genetic, epigenetic, microbiological, environmental, and social factors. This narrative review synthesises recent findings on the influence of genetic and epigenetic factors on caries susceptibility, exploring implications for personalised prevention strategies, including novel vaccine approaches. Numerous gene polymorphisms in pathways related to enamel formation, saliva composition, immune response, and taste perception have been linked to increased caries risk, with some effects modulated by sex and tooth-specific factors. Early-life environmental exposures (diet, tobacco, and antibiotic use) have been demonstrated to further alter risk through epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation, microRNA regulation, and histone changes. The recognition of this landscape of inherited and acquired vulnerabilities has given rise to interest in innovative preventive measures. In particular, anti-caries vaccines targeting Streptococcus mutans are being developed using protein subunits, DNA constructs, and even plant-based antigen production. Notwithstanding the challenges that still need to be overcome\u2014chiefly the achievement of robust mucosal immunity, the assurance of safety, and the enhancement of production\u2014these vaccines are proving to be a promising addition to traditional oral hygiene and fluoride measures. The integration of genetic and epigenetic insights with immunological advances has the potential to facilitate the development of more effective, personalised interventions to prevent dental caries.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes16080952","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,13]],"date-time":"2025-08-13T09:43:01Z","timestamp":1755078181000},"page":"952","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Tooth Decay: Genetic and Epigenetic Insights Driving the Development of Anti-Caries Vaccines"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"In\u00e8s","family":"Bouaita","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Egas Moniz Dental Clinic (EMDC), Instituto Universit\u00e1rio Egas Moniz, Campus Universit\u00e1rio, Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2829-511 Almada, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9","family":"Peixoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universit\u00e1rio Egas Moniz, Campus Universit\u00e1rio, Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2829-511 Almada, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6584-1199","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Mascarenhas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universit\u00e1rio Egas Moniz, Campus Universit\u00e1rio, Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2829-511 Almada, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9881-3338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Manso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universit\u00e1rio Egas Moniz, Campus Universit\u00e1rio, Quinta da Granja, Monte de Caparica, 2829-511 Almada, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17030","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2017.30","article-title":"Dental caries","volume":"3","author":"Pitts","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. 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