{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:55:19Z","timestamp":1785412519127,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780012800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000199","name":"United States Department of Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ILLU-802-909 and ILLU-483-625"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ILLU-802-909 and ILLU-483-625"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000199","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["ILLU-802-909 and ILLU-483-625"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ILLU-802-909 and ILLU-483-625"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01na82s61","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010548","name":"National Center for Supercomputing Applications","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010548","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Recent work has revealed that protein-coding sequences encode regulatory information influencing mRNA stability and translation through a nascent peptide code. However, the evolutionary origin of this regulatory layer remains unclear. This study aims to determine when peptide-mediated translational control emerged during the evolution of the proteome and genetic code. Methods: Dipeptide-specific effects on mRNA stability and translation were integrated with a phylogenetic timeline of dipeptide emergence derived from dipeptide sequences across proteomes. Each of the 400 canonical dipeptides was assigned an evolutionary age, and experimentally derived regulatory effects were mapped onto this timeline, with associations assessed using rank-based correlation and regression analyses. Results: A weak but statistically significant negative association was observed between dipeptide age and mRNA stability, indicating that more recently evolved dipeptides tend to destabilize transcripts. This trend was stronger at the amino acid level, where later-emerging residues showed greater contributions to reduced mRNA levels. Destabilizing effects were associated with physicochemical properties such as positive charge, side-chain bulkiness, and \u03b2-strand propensity. Mapping these effects onto codon space revealed a non-random distribution aligned with the evolutionary and structural organization of the genetic code. Destabilizing effects were also enriched within specific codon exchange groups, indicating that regulatory signals are structured within the degeneracy and mutational neighborhoods of the code. Conclusions: These findings indicate that the nascent peptide code is a late evolutionary innovation linked to amino acid expansion and proteomic complexity, with regulation embedded within both peptide sequences and the degeneracy structure of the standard genetic code.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes17060619","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T06:17:31Z","timestamp":1780467451000},"page":"619","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Late Evolution of the Nascent Peptide Code for Translational Control and Its Relationship to the Standard Genetic Code"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5854-4121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo","family":"Caetano-Anoll\u00e9s","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"},{"name":"Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a032839","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a032839","article-title":"The interplay between the RNA decay and translation machinery in eukaryotes","volume":"10","author":"Heck","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.91","article-title":"Codon optimality, bias and usage in translation and mRNA decay","volume":"19","author":"Hanson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. 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