{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T04:59:07Z","timestamp":1785473947655,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004608","name":"Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["BK20230785"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BK20230785"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004608","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32300230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32300230"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32300230"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32300230"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Genes"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone produced by Artemisia annua, is synthesized and stored predominantly in glandular secretory trichomes (GSTs). Despite substantial advances in elucidating its biosynthetic pathway and transcriptional regulation, a key challenge remains: how developmental processes, hormone signaling, and metabolic pathways are coordinately integrated to overcome the trade-off between trichome density, metabolic flux, and vegetative biomass, which ultimately limits whole-plant yield. Recent studies have identified basic helix\u2013loop\u2013helix (bHLH) transcription factors (TFs) as central integrative hubs in this network. AabHLH113 functions as a convergence node linking jasmonic acid (JA) and abscisic acid (ABA) signaling to activate core biosynthetic genes. AaMYC3 bridges development and metabolism by promoting GST initiation via AaHD1 while enhancing pathway flux and cooperating with other bHLH factors to amplify amorpha-4,11-diene synthase (ADS) and artemisinic aldehyde delta-11(13) reductase (DBR2) expression. Extending this regulation to the whole-plant level, AaSPATULA coordinates GST formation with photosynthetic capacity, carbon assimilation, and biomass accumulation. Here, we propose a unified framework in which bHLH TFs integrate hormone signaling, trichome development, metabolic flux, and carbon allocation into a coherent regulatory system. We further discuss implications for next-generation metabolic engineering and highlight future directions, including multi-omics-guided, multi-target editing of regulatory hubs. This developmental\u2013metabolic integration framework provides a conceptual basis for optimizing artemisinin production and improving high-value metabolite biosynthesis in other trichome-bearing plants.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/genes17080883","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T10:13:47Z","timestamp":1785320027000},"page":"883","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Breaking the Growth\u2013Defense Trade-Off: bHLH Transcription Factors as Integrators of Development, Metabolism, and Yield in Artemisia annua"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3456-5195","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mingyuan","family":"Yuan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2992-0380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbi.2004.05.002","article-title":"Strategies used by bacterial pathogens to suppress plant defenses","volume":"7","author":"Abramovitch","year":"2004","journal-title":"Curr. 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