{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T02:03:23Z","timestamp":1769738603113,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,14]],"date-time":"2021-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615680000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infectious Disease Reports"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Kytococcus schroeteri is a member of normal skin microflora, which can cause lethal infections in immunosuppressed hosts. In this review we attempted to draw patterns of its pathogenicity, which seem to vary regarding host immune status and the presence of implantable devices. Evidence suggests this pathogen houses many resistance-forming proteins, which serve to exacerbate the challenge in curing it. Available information on K. schroeteri antibacterial susceptibility is scarce. In this situation, a novel, genome-based antibiotic resistance analysis model, previously suggested by Su et al., could aid clinicians dealing with unknown infections. In this study we merged data from observed antibiotic resistance patterns with resistance data demonstrated by DNA sequences. Methods: We reviewed all available articles and reports on K. schroeteri, from peer-reviewed online databases (ClinicalKey, PMC, Scopus and WebOfScience). Information on patients was then subdivided into patient profiles and tabulated independently. We later performed K. schroeteri genome sequence analysis for resistance proteins to understand the trends K. schroeteri exhibits. Results: K. schroeteri is resistant to beta-lactams, macrolides and clindamycin. It is susceptible to aminoglycosides, tetracyclines and rifampicin. We combined data from the literature review and sequence analysis and found evidence for the existence of PBP, PBP-2A and efflux pumps as likely determinants of K. schroeteri. Conclusions: Reviewing the data permits the speculation that baseline immune status plays a role in the outcome of a Kytococcal infection. Nonetheless, our case report demonstrates that the outcome of a lower baseline immunity could still be favorable, possibly using rifampicin in first-line treatment of infection caused by K. schroeteri.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/idr13010026","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]],"date-time":"2021-03-15T02:51:48Z","timestamp":1615776708000},"page":"230-238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Insight into Kytococcus schroeteri Infection Management: A Case Report and Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Shelly","family":"Bagelman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"International Students Department, Riga Stradins University, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gunda","family":"Zvigule-Neidere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Riga Stradins University, LV-1007 Riga, Latvia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1099\/00207713-45-4-682","article-title":"Taxonomic dissection of the genus Micrococcus: Kocuria gen. nov., Nesterenkonia gen. nov., Kytococcus gen. nov., Dermacoccus gen. nov., and Micrococcus cohn 1872 gen. emend","volume":"45","author":"Stackebrandt","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1609","DOI":"10.1099\/00207713-52-5-1609","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri sp. nov., a novel Gram-positive actinobacterium isolated from a human clinical source","volume":"52","author":"Becker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1128\/MRA.01081-19","article-title":"Draft Genome Sequence of Kytococcus schroeteri Strain H01, Isolated from Human Skin","volume":"8","author":"Boukerb","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Resour. Announc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2004.06.013","article-title":"Fatal Kytococcus schroeteri bacteremic pneumonia","volume":"51","author":"Mohammedi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-009-9295-4","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri pneumonia in two patients with a hematological malignancy","volume":"38","author":"Hodiamont","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01245-11","article-title":"Pneumonia and bacteremia due to Kytococcus schroeteri","volume":"50","author":"Blennow","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1001\/archdermatol.2011.242","article-title":"Fatal Kytococcus schroeteri infection with crusted papules and distinctive histologic plump tetrads","volume":"147","author":"Nagler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"217307","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri bacteremia in a Patient with hairy cell leukemia: A case report and review of the riterature","volume":"2015","author":"Amaraneni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Case Rep. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ccm.0000510444.50180.91","article-title":"Kytococcal bacteremia in a pediatric patient with myelodysplastic syndrome.1771","volume":"44","author":"DeMartini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1101.040761","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri endocarditis","volume":"11","author":"Bouet","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.44.3.1187-1189.2006","article-title":"Endocarditis due to Kytococcus schroeteri: Case report and review of the literature","volume":"44","author":"Mnif","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s00508-007-0903-3","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri: A probably underdiagnosed pathogen involved in prosthetic valve endocarditis","volume":"120","author":"Aepinus","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wien. Klin. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2007.06.011","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri, a rare agent of endocarditis","volume":"12","author":"Renvoise","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medmal.2009.06.003","article-title":"Endocardite infectieuse \u00e0 Kytococcus schroeteri","volume":"40","author":"Poyet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Mal. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yousri, T., Hawari, M., Saad, R., and Langley, S. (2010). Kytococcus schroeteri prosthetic valve endocarditis. BMJ Case Rep., 2010.","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr.06.2010.3064"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.035493-0","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri endocarditis successfully managed with daptomycin: A case report and review of the literature","volume":"61","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1007\/s15010-012-0250-9","article-title":"First report of chronic implant-related septic arthritis and osteomyelitis due to Kytococcus schroeteri and a review of human K. schroeteri infections","volume":"40","author":"Chan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infection"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.010454-0","article-title":"Postoperative spondylodiscitis due to Kytococcus schroeteri in a diabetic woman","volume":"59","author":"Jacquier","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shah, A.S., Vijayvargiya, P., Jung, S., and Wilson, J.W. (2019). Postoperative hardware-related infection from Kytococcus schroeteri: Its association with prosthetic material and hematological malignancies\u2014a report of a case and review of existing literature. Case Rep. Infect. Dis., 2019.","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/6936472"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2008.09.004","article-title":"Kytococcus schroeteri infection of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt in a child","volume":"13","author":"Jourdain","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.045351-0","article-title":"A bumpy road to the diagnosis of a Kytococcus schroeteri shunt infection","volume":"62","author":"Schaumburg","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E304","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000002014","article-title":"First case of bacteremia caused by Kytococcus schroeteri in a child with congenital adrenal hyperplasia","volume":"37","author":"Bayraktar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01405-18","article-title":"Genome-based prediction of bacterial antibiotic resistance","volume":"57","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2020, September 29). Taxonomy Browser (Kytococcus sedentarius) n.d, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/Taxonomy\/Browser\/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=1276."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2020, August 02). Kytococcus schroeteri Strain H01 1, Whole Genome Shotgun Sequence-Nucleotide-NCBI, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/nuccore\/VHHR01000001.1."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2020, September 13). Kytococcus schroeteri Strain UMB1298 ERR1203635.17957_1_47.5, Whole ge-Nucleotide-NCBI n.d, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/nuccore\/NZ_PKIZ01000005.1?report=genbank."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiac.2019.10.019","article-title":"Half of \u2018Micrococcus spp.\u2019 cases identified by conventional methods are revealed as other life-threatening bacteria with different drug susceptibility patterns by 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing","volume":"26","author":"Noguchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"135","article-title":"Penicillin\u2019s discovery and antibiotic resistance: Lessons for the future?","volume":"90","author":"Lobanovska","year":"2017","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.2174\/1871526516666160407113848","article-title":"Bacterial Multidrug Efflux Pumps of the Major Facilitator Superfamily as Targets for Modulation","volume":"16","author":"Kumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Disord.-Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.1993.tb01601.x","article-title":"Streptomyces antibioticus contains at least three oleandomycin-resistance determinants, one of which shows similarity with proteins of the ABC-transporter superfamily","volume":"8","author":"Olano","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3210139","article-title":"Interaction between ATP, oleandomycin and the OleB ATP-binding cassette transporter of Streptomyces antibioticus involved in oleandomycin secretion","volume":"321","author":"Buche","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2021, February 24). NCBI Conserved Domain Search, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/Structure\/cdd\/wrpsb.cgi?RID=3AAWSZN701R&mode=all."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e9rez-Varela, M., Corral, J., Aranda, J., and Barb\u00e9, J. (2018). Functional characterization of AbaQ, a novel efflux pump mediating quinolone resistance in acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 62.","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00906-18"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2021, February 24). CDD Conserved Protein Domain Family: MATE_NorM_Like, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/Structure\/cdd\/cddsrv.cgi?ascbin=8&maxaln=10&seltype=2&uid=cd13137."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8921","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.150116497","article-title":"The molecular basis of vancomycin resistance in clinically relevant Enterococci: Crystal structure of D-alanyl-D-lactate ligase (VanA)","volume":"97","author":"Roper","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S25","DOI":"10.1086\/491711","article-title":"Vancomycin resistance in Gram-positive cocci","volume":"42","author":"Courvalin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pawlowski, A.C., Wang, W., Koteva, K., Barton, H.A., McArthur, A.G., and Wright, G.D. (2016). A diverse intrinsic antibiotic resistome from a cave bacterium. Nat. Commun., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13803"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2923","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.1991.tb01852.x","article-title":"Characterization of an oxytetracycline-resistance gene, otrA, of Streptomyces rimosus","volume":"5","author":"Doyle","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2020, July 28). Infective Endocarditis|American Heart Association. Available online: https:\/\/www.heart.org\/en\/health-topics\/infective-endocarditis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1136\/hrt.2005.063719","article-title":"Management of infective endocarditis","volume":"92","author":"Habib","year":"2006","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3142","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.182.11.3142-3150.2000","article-title":"Interplay between efflux pumps may provide either additive or multiplicative effects on drug resistance","volume":"182","author":"Lee","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."}],"container-title":["Infectious Disease Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2036-7449\/13\/1\/26\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:35:29Z","timestamp":1760160929000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2036-7449\/13\/1\/26"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,14]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["idr13010026"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/idr13010026","relation":{},"ISSN":["2036-7449"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2036-7449","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,14]]}}}