{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T01:04:05Z","timestamp":1773795845306,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]],"date-time":"2023-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1688083200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture","award":["VA-160131"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["VA-160131"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infectious Disease Reports"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mosquito-borne La Crosse virus (LACV; family: Peribunyaviridae) is the leading cause of pediatric arboviral encephalitis in the United States, with clinical cases generally centered in the Midwest and Appalachian regions. Incidence of LACV cases in Appalachian states has increased, such that the region currently represents the majority of reported LACV cases in the USA. The amount of reported LACV cases from Virginia, however, is minimal compared to neighboring states such as North Carolina, West Virginia, and Tennessee, and non-Appalachian regions of Virginia are understudied. Here we examine the hypothesis that LACV is circulating widely in Virginia, despite a low clinical case report rate, and that the virus is circulating in areas not associated with LACV disease. In this study, we screened local mammalian wildlife in northwestern counties of Virginia using passive surveillance via patients submitted to wildlife rehabilitation centers. Blood sera (527 samples; 9 species, 8 genera) collected between October 2019 and December 2022 were screened for neutralizing antibodies against LACV, indicating prior exposure to the virus. We found an overall LACV seroprevalence of 1.90% among all wild mammals examined and reveal evidence of LACV exposure in several wild species not generally associated with LACV, including eastern cottontails and red foxes, along with established reservoirs, eastern gray squirrels, although there was no serological evidence in chipmunks. These data indicate the circulation of LACV in Virginia outside of Appalachian counties, however, at a lower rate than reported for endemic areas within the state and in other states.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/idr15040036","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,3]],"date-time":"2023-07-03T01:03:02Z","timestamp":1688346182000},"page":"360-369","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["La Crosse Virus Circulation in Virginia, Assessed via Serosurveillance in Wildlife Species"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6016-2915","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lindsey R.","family":"Faw","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"},{"name":"Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens (CeZAP), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Riley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Blue Ridge Wildlife Center, Boyce, VA 22620, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9683-0353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gillian","family":"Eastwood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Entomology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"},{"name":"Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens (CeZAP), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA"},{"name":"The Global Change Center at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2009.10.008","article-title":"Present and Future Arboviral Threats","volume":"85","author":"Weaver","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antiviral. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06536","article-title":"Global trends in emerging infectious diseases","volume":"451","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e416","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(20)30178-9","article-title":"Climate change could shift disease burden from malaria to arboviruses in Africa","volume":"4","author":"Mordecai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2015.18","article-title":"Factors responsible for the emergence of arboviruses: Strategies, challenges and limitations for their control","volume":"4","author":"Liang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Emer. Micro. Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idc.2017.10.007","article-title":"Encephalitis in Children","volume":"32","author":"Messacar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001365","article-title":"ICTV Virus Taxonomy Profile: Peribunyaviridae","volume":"101","author":"Hughes","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a120512","article-title":"Isolation of California encephalitis group virus from a fatal human illness","volume":"81","author":"Thompson","year":"1965","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022). \u201cLa Crosse Encephalitis\u2014Statistics & Maps\u201d, US Department of Health and Human Services."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200103153441103","article-title":"La Crosse Encephalitis in Children","volume":"344","author":"McJunkin","year":"2001","journal-title":"N. Eng. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e642","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2014-0498","article-title":"Neuroinvasive Arboviral Disease in the United States: 2003 to 2012","volume":"134","author":"Gaensbauer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2022). \u201cLa Crosse Encephalitis\u2014Virus\u201d, US Department of Health and Human Services."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.52.5.680","article-title":"California Arbovirus (La Crosse) Infections I. Clinical and laboratory findings in 66 children with meningoencephalitis","volume":"52","author":"Siem","year":"1973","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.7.1.89","article-title":"Medically important arboviruses of the United States and Canada","volume":"7","author":"Calisher","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1086\/515087","article-title":"Newly Recognized Focus of La Crosse Encephalitis in Tennessee","volume":"28","author":"Jones","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2211.160308","article-title":"Epidemiology of La Crosse Virus Emergence, Appalachia Region, United States","volume":"22","author":"Bewick","year":"2016","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-012-0773-7","article-title":"Impacts of climate, land use, and biological invasion on the ecology of immature Aedes mosquitoes: Implications for La Crosse emergence","volume":"9","author":"Leisnham","year":"2012","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-37.4.559","article-title":"La Crosse Encephalitis Virus Habitat Associations in Nicholas County, West Virginia","volume":"37","author":"Nasci","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haddow, A.D., and Odoi, A. (2009). The Incidence Risk, Clustering, and Clinical Presentation of La Crosse Virus Infections in the Eastern United States, 2003-2007. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0006145"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0404.980413","article-title":"Introduction of Aedes albopictus into a La Crosse virus\u2014Enzootic site in Illinois","volume":"4","author":"Kitron","year":"1998","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"422","article-title":"Recently introduced Aedes albopictus in the United States: Potential vector of La Crosse virus (Bunyaviridae: California serogroup)","volume":"5","author":"Grimstad","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0705.017506","article-title":"First isolation of La Crosse virus from naturally infected Aedes albopictus","volume":"7","author":"Gerhardt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/44.6.945","article-title":"Establishment and Abundance of a Recently Introduced Mosquito Species Ochlerotatus japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Southern Appalachians, USA","volume":"44","author":"Bevins","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1603\/0022-2585-39.4.635","article-title":"Laboratory Transmission of La Crosse Virus by Ochlerotatus j. japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"39","author":"Sardelis","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.21-0294","article-title":"La Crosse Virus Disease in the United States, 2003\u20132019","volume":"105","author":"Vahey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2023). ArboNET Disease Maps, US Department of Health and Human Services."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2012.11-0283","article-title":"Serosurveillance of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus in Amphibians and Reptiles from Alabama, USA","volume":"86","author":"Graham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"10","article-title":"Trapping and serosurveillance of live wild birds for arboviruses","volume":"8","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"TBFMCA"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.17-0126","article-title":"Enzootic Circulation of Chikungunya Virus in East Africa: Serological Evidence for Non-human Kenyan Primates","volume":"97","author":"Eastwood","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1007\/s10393-014-0911-5","article-title":"Using Avian Surveillance in Ecuador to Assess the Imminence of West Nile Virus Incursion to Gal\u00e1pagos","volume":"11","author":"Eastwood","year":"2014","journal-title":"EcoHealth"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-23.1.23","article-title":"Seroconversion rates to Jamestown Canyon virus among six populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Indiana","volume":"23","author":"Boromisa","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-27.2.230","article-title":"Serological evidence of California group and Cache Valley virus infection in Minnesota white-tailed deer","volume":"27","author":"Neitzel","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Dohoo, I.R., Martin, S.W., and Stryhn, H. (2003). Veterinary Epidemiologic Research, AVC Incorporated. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hopkins, M.C., Zink, S.D., Paulson, S.L., and Hawley, D.M. (2019). Influence of Forest Disturbance on La Crosse Virus Risk in Southwestern Virginia. Insects, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/insects11010028"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1971.20.474","article-title":"California Group Virus Infections in Small, Forest-Dwelling Mammals of Wisconsin: Some Ecological Considerations","volume":"20","author":"Moulton","year":"1971","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1985.34.586","article-title":"Experimental La Crosse Virus Infection of Red Fox (Vulpes fulva), Raccoon (Procyon lotor), Opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and Woodchuck (Marmota monax)","volume":"34","author":"Amundson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"651","article-title":"Antibodies to La Crosse virus in eastern chipmunks in Indiana near an Aedes albopictus population","volume":"7","author":"Cully","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Mosq. Control. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1975.24.999","article-title":"Isolation of La Crosse Virus (California Encephalitis Group) from Chipmunk (Tamias striatus), an Amplifier Host","volume":"24","author":"Gauld","year":"1975","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-24.2.352","article-title":"Serum antibody prevalence for Herpesvirus sylvilagus, Bacillus piliformis and California serogroup arboviruses in cottontail rabbits from Pennsylvania","volume":"24","author":"Dressler","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.23.4.667-671.1986","article-title":"Serodiagnosis of La Crosse virus infections in humans by detection of immunoglobulin M class antibodies","volume":"23","author":"Calisher","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1660\/062.115.0301","article-title":"Home range and habitat selection of Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) in a small urban hardwood forest","volume":"115","author":"Tounzen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.2307\/3800877","article-title":"Home Range and Survival of Cottontail Rabbits in Southwestern Wisconsin","volume":"38","author":"Tent","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Manag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2307\/3504364","article-title":"Marmota monax","volume":"591","author":"Kwiecinski","year":"1998","journal-title":"Mamm. Species"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage (2021). Overview of the Physiography and Vegetation of Virginia, Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1080\/08927014.1996.9522906","article-title":"Variation in the social system of the red fox","volume":"8","author":"Cavallini","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ethol. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Virginia Department of Health, Office of Epidemiology (2016). Virginia HIV Epidemiology Profile 2016, Virginia Department of Health."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2015.1865","article-title":"Serological Survey for Antibodies to Mosquito-Borne Bunyaviruses Among US National Park Service and US Forest Service Employees","volume":"16","author":"Kosoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2011.0917","article-title":"Zoonotic Infections Among Employees from Great Smoky Mountains and Rocky Mountain National Parks, 2008\u20132009","volume":"12","author":"Adjemian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16424","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95757-2","article-title":"Cross reactivity of neutralizing antibodies to the encephalitic California Serogroup orthobunyaviruses varies by virus and genetic relatedness","volume":"11","author":"Evans","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Infectious Disease Reports"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2036-7449\/15\/4\/36\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T20:04:18Z","timestamp":1760126658000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2036-7449\/15\/4\/36"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["idr15040036"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/idr15040036","relation":{},"ISSN":["2036-7449"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2036-7449","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]}}}