{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,10]],"date-time":"2026-04-10T02:44:59Z","timestamp":1775789099703,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ESTHER Alliance for Global Health Partnerships"},{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["01KA1102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01KA1102"]}]},{"name":"German Ministry of Defense","award":["36K2-S-45 1922"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["36K2-S-45 1922"]}]},{"name":"Heinz Ansmann Foundation for AIDS Research"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Infectious Disease Reports"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Cryptosporidium spp. cause opportunistic infections in immunosuppressed individuals, such as people living with HIV (PLWH). However, the association between giardiasis and HIV infection remains uncertain. This study assessed co-infections in Ghanaian PLWH and HIV-negative individuals, analyzing socio-economic, clinical, and immunological implications, including the Giardia duodenalis assemblage and Cryptosporidium spp. sub-family levels. Methods: Stool samples from Ghanaian PLWH were tested using several real-time PCR assays targeting G. duodenalis at the species level and assemblages A and B to optimize diagnostic accuracy. GD60 gene-based Sanger sequencing was used for Cryptosporidium spp. subtyping. Results were correlated with anonymized patient data to evaluate interactions with HIV infection. Results: In PLWH, C. hominis Ib, C. hominis Ie, and C. parvum IIc were detected at similar frequencies, followed by C. hominis Ia, C. hominis Id, and C. parvum IIe in decreasing order. Only C. parvum IIc was repeatedly observed in individuals with CD4+ T cell counts above 200\/\u00b5L, while other sub-families occurred preferentially in those with lower counts. C. hominis Ia and Ib were associated with PLWH not receiving antiretroviral therapy; C. hominis Ia was linked to recently diagnosed HIV infections. No relevant associations between G. duodenalis assemblages and HIV infection were found. Conclusions: Sub-families Ia and Ib of C. hominis preferentially occur in individuals with severe immunosuppression, while C. parvum IIc is also detectable in individuals with better immune function. The prevalence of giardiasis in Ghana appears to be influenced by factors other than HIV-induced immunosuppression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/idr17050129","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T07:29:38Z","timestamp":1760599778000},"page":"129","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Assessment of Cryptosporidium spp. Sub-Families and Giardia duodenalis Assemblages A and B in Ghanaian HIV Patients, Including Socio-Economic, Clinical, and Immunological Associations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6476-6147","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lynn","family":"Glyschewski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Bundeswehr Hospital Hamburg, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8967-9528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hagen","family":"Frickmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Bundeswehr Hospital Hamburg, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"},{"name":"Institute for Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fred Stephen","family":"Sarfo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4075-5972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Betty Roberta","family":"Norman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Albert","family":"Dompreh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Acheamfour-Akowuah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin Kofi","family":"Agyei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"},{"name":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shadrack Osei","family":"Asibey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3599-9136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Boateng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi 00233, Ghana"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edmund Osei","family":"Kuffour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Retrovirology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1604-8386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronica","family":"Di Cristanziano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, University of Cologne, 50937 Cologne, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4873-249X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sven","family":"Poppert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, 13353 Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9173-7072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felix","family":"Weinreich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine, Bundeswehr Central Hospital Koblenz, 56072 Koblenz, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2710-4929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albert","family":"Eisenbarth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Bundeswehr Hospital Hamburg, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tafese Beyene","family":"Tufa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hirsch Institute of Tropical Medicine (HITM), Heinrich-Heine University, Asella P.O. Box 04, Ethiopia"},{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty and University Hospital D\u00fcsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, 40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6755-4492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Torsten","family":"Feldt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty and University Hospital D\u00fcsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, 40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1002-0326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kirsten Alexandra","family":"Eberhardt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty and University Hospital D\u00fcsseldorf, Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf, 40225 D\u00fcsseldorf, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20359 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00076-12","article-title":"Cryptosporidium pathogenicity and virulence","volume":"26","author":"Bouzid","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2017.03.014","article-title":"Cryptosporidium and Giardia Infections in Children: A Review","volume":"64","author":"Mmbaga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luka, G., Samiei, E., Tasnim, N., Dalili, A., Najjaran, H., and Hoorfar, M. (2022). Comprehensive review of conventional and state-of-the-art detection methods of Cryptosporidium. J. Hazard. 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