{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:47:21Z","timestamp":1790812041920,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,26]],"date-time":"2014-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1403740800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Leptospirosis is a zoonosis of global distribution that affects tropical and temperate areas. Under suitable conditions, Leptospira can survive in water and soil and contribute to human and animal infections. The objective of this study was to describe the presence of pathogenic Leptospira in peri-domestic water samples from rural households in southern Chile. Water samples, including puddles, containers, animal troughs, rivers, canals, and drinking water were collected from 236 households and tested for Leptospira using a PCR assay targeting the lipL32 gene. Evidence of Leptospira presence was detected in all sample types; overall, 13.5% (77\/570) samples tested positive. A total of 10\/22 (45.5%) open containers, 12\/83 (14.5%) animal drinking sources, 9\/47 (19.1%) human drinking sources, and 36\/306 (19.3%) puddles tested positive. Lower income (OR = 4.35, p = 0.003), increased temperature (OR = 1.23, p &lt; 0.001), and presence of dogs (OR = 15.9, p = 0.022) were positively associated with positive puddles. Increased number of rodent signs was associated with positive puddles in the household (OR = 3.22); however, only in the lower income households. There was no association between PCR positive rodents and puddles at the household level. Results revealed the ubiquity of Leptospira in the household environment and highlight the need to develop formal approaches for systematic monitoring.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110706666","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,26]],"date-time":"2014-06-26T11:03:52Z","timestamp":1403780632000},"page":"6666-6680","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":75,"title":["Leptospira Contamination in Household and Environmental Water in Rural Communities in Southern Chile"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Claudia","family":"Mu\u00f1oz-Zanzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Epidemiology and Community Health, School of Public Health,  University of Minnesota, 1300 S. Second St., Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, USA"},{"name":"Institute of Animal Pathology, Austral University of Chile, Valdivia, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meghan","family":"Mason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Epidemiology and Community Health, School of Public Health,  University of Minnesota, 1300 S. Second St., Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN 55454, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carolina","family":"Encina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Pathology, Austral University of Chile, Valdivia, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angel","family":"Astroza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Pathology, Austral University of Chile, Valdivia, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alex","family":"Romero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Pathology, Austral University of Chile, Valdivia, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7229","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10127229","article-title":"Leptospirosis: A silent epidemic disease","volume":"10","author":"Schneider","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2010.06.012","article-title":"Estimating the burden of human leptospirosis","volume":"36","author":"Sikkema","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"721","article-title":"Leptospirosis as an occupational disease","volume":"43","author":"Watkins","year":"1986","journal-title":"Br. J. Ind. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2005.03.007","article-title":"Prevention of renal infection and urinary shedding in dogs by a Leptospira vaccination","volume":"108","author":"Schreiber","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001","article-title":"Leptospirosis","volume":"14","author":"Levett","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"35","article-title":"Cell aggregation: A mechanism of pathogenic Leptospira to survive in fresh water","volume":"7","author":"Trueba","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"436","article-title":"Observations on the survival of Leptospira australis A in soil and water","volume":"53","author":"Smith","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Hyg.  (Lond.)"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(03)00830-2","article-title":"Leptospirosis: A zoonotic disease of global importance","volume":"3","author":"Bharti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Hagan, J.E., Costa, F., Calcagno, J., Kane, M., Torgerson, P., Martinez-Silveira, M.S., Stein, C., Abela-Ridder, B., and Ko, A. (2013, January 8\u201311). Global Morbidity and Mortality of Leptospirosis: A Systematic Review. Proceedings of the 8th International Leptospirosis Society Scientific Meeting, Fukuoka, Japan."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1801.101892","article-title":"Outbreak of leptospirosis after flood, the Philippines, 2009","volume":"18","author":"Amilasan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1590\/S0102-311X2001000700014","article-title":"The place behind the case: Leptospirosis risks and associated environmental conditions in a flood-related outbreak in Rio de Janeiro","volume":"17","author":"Barcellos","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cad. Saude Publica"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2007.05.003","article-title":"Current status of leptospirosis in Japan and Philippines","volume":"30","author":"Yanagihara","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007658607963","article-title":"Epidemiological trend of human leptospirosis in Italy between 1994 and 1996","volume":"16","author":"Ciceroni","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2005.01148.x","article-title":"Clinical presentation of leptospirosis: A retrospective study of 34 patients admitted to a single institution in Metropolitan France","volume":"11","author":"Jaureguiberry","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2011.03474.x","article-title":"Emergence, control and re-emerging leptospirosis: Dynamics of infection in the changing world","volume":"17","author":"Hartskeerl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0706.010611","article-title":"The changing epidemiology of leptospirosis in Israel","volume":"7","author":"Kariv","year":"2001","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1086\/597036","article-title":"Resurgence of field fever in a temperate country: An epidemic of leptospirosis among seasonal strawberry harvesters in Germany in 2007","volume":"48","author":"Desai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3510","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00670-06","article-title":"Species-specific identification of Leptospiraceae by 16S rRNA gene sequencing","volume":"44","author":"Morey","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ganoza, C.A., Matthias, M.A., Collins-Richards, D., Brouwer, K.C., Cunningham, C.B., Segura, E.R., Gilman, R.H., Gotuzzo, E., and Vinetz, J.M. (2006). Determining risk for severe leptospirosis by molecular analysis of environmental surface waters for pathogenic Leptospira. PLoS Med., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030308"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.45860-0","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic leptospires by real-time quantitative PCR","volume":"54","author":"Levett","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02728-12","article-title":"Comparative analysis of Leptospira strains isolated from environmental soil and water in the Philippines and Japan","volume":"79","author":"Saito","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1264\/jsme2.ME12154","article-title":"Pathogenic and saprophytic Leptospira species in water and soils from selected urban sites in peninsular Malaysia","volume":"28","author":"Benacer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microbes Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"632","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic Leptospira from selected environment in Kelantan and Terengganu, Malaysia","volume":"27","author":"Ridzlan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2011.064","article-title":"Quantitative PCR-based detection of pathogenic Leptospira in Hawai\u2019Ian coastal streams","volume":"9","author":"Viau","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Water. Health."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Municipality of Valdivia, Climate and Vegetation. Available online:http:\/\/www.munivaldivia.cl\/www\/municipal_valdivia\/."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"73","article-title":"A serological survey of leptospirosis in sheep in Chile","volume":"41","author":"Zamora","year":"1999","journal-title":"Rev. Latinoam. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"269","article-title":"Seroprevalence of canine leptospirosis in patients of veterinary clinics using microscopic agglutination, culture, and direct immunofluorescence","volume":"39","author":"Silva","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Vet."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0334","article-title":"Household characteristics associated with rodent presence and Leptospira infection in rural and urban communities from Southern Chile","volume":"90","author":"Mason","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"426","article-title":"Risk factors and frequency of positive antibodies for leptospirosis in a sub-urban population near Santiago","volume":"133","author":"Perret","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Chil."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"247","article-title":"Serological survey of human leptospirosis in a high risk population in Chile","volume":"118","author":"Zamora","year":"1990","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Chil."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2009.03.014","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. through TaqMan Polymerase Chain Reaction targeting the LipL32 Gene","volume":"64","author":"Stoddard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., and Walker, S. lme4: Linear mixed-effects models using Eigen and S4. Available online:http:\/\/lme4.r-Forge.r-Project.Org\/."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-60327-353-4_17","article-title":"Detection of pathogenic Leptospira spp. through real-time PCR (qPCR) targeting the LipL32 gene","volume":"943","author":"Stoddard","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2008.05.004","article-title":"Leptospira exposure in the human environment in France: A survey in feral rodents and in fresh water","volume":"32","author":"Aviat","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1590\/S0074-02762010000300020","article-title":"Multiplex PCR-based detection of Leptospira in environmental water samples obtained from a slum settlement","volume":"105","author":"Balassiano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0124","article-title":"Leptospira species in floodwater during the 2011 floods in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region, Thailand","volume":"89","author":"Thaipadungpanit","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1048","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1107.041172","article-title":"Leptospirosis in Germany, 1962\u20132003","volume":"11","author":"Jansen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1007\/s00508-011-0100-2","article-title":"Outbreak of leptospirosis among triathlon participants in Langau, Austria, 2010","volume":"123","author":"Radl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Wien. Klin. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.4067\/S0370-41062003000400008","article-title":"Brote Epid\u00e9mico De Leptospirosis En Ni\u00f1os De Linares","volume":"74","author":"Arias","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"124","article-title":"Outbreak of human leptospirosis after a flood in Reconquista, Santa Fe, 1998","volume":"34","author":"Vanasco","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz-Zanzi, C. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2008.07.005","article-title":"Carriage of Leptospira interrogans among domestic rats from an urban setting highly endemic for leptospirosis in Brazil","volume":"108","author":"Calderwood","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Lelu, M., Higgins, B., Gonzalez, M., Gallowey, R., and Munoz-Zanzi, C. (2013, January 8\u201311). Sero-Epidemiology of Canine Leptospirosis in Los Rios Region, Chile. Proceedings of the 8th International Leptospirosis Society Scientific Meeting, Fukuoka, Japan."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1230","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2003.222.1230","article-title":"Comparison of polymerase chain reaction assay, bacteriologic culture, and serologic testing in assessment of prevalence of urinary shedding of leptospires in dogs","volume":"222","author":"Harkin","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Picardeau, M., Bulach, D.M., Bouchier, C., Zuerner, R.L., Zidane, N., Wilson, P.J., Creno, S., Kuczek, E.S., Bommezzadri, S., and Davis, J.C. (2008). Genome sequence of the saprophyte Leptospira biflexa provides insights into the evolution of Leptospira and the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. PLoS One, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0001607"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2114","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002114","article-title":"Serovar diversity of pathogenic Leptospira circulating in the French West Indies","volume":"7","author":"Bourhy","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.35.3.492-499.1978","article-title":"Distribution of the genus Leptospira in soil and water","volume":"35","author":"Henry","year":"1978","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/S1995-7645(12)60095-9","article-title":"Modeling seasonal leptospirosis transmission and its association with rainfall and temperature in Thailand using time-series and ARIMAX analyses","volume":"5","author":"Chadsuthi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Asian Pac. J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"131","article-title":"The relationship between rainfall and human leptospirosis in Florianopolis, Brazil, 1991\u20131996","volume":"4","author":"Kupek","year":"2000","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.1139\/w2012-060","article-title":"Adaptation of a real-time PCR method for the detection and quantification of pathogenic leptospires in environmental water","volume":"58","author":"Vein","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/11\/7\/6666\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:12:59Z","timestamp":1760217179000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/11\/7\/6666"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,26]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph110706666"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph110706666","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,26]]}}}