{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T23:32:42Z","timestamp":1772753562331,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,6]],"date-time":"2014-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1407283200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness Project","award":["CGL2009-10683"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CGL2009-10683"]}]},{"name":"Organismo Aut\u00f3nomo Parques Nacionales del Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino","award":["Project 158-2010"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Project 158-2010"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The possible connectivity between the spatial distribution of water bodies suitable for vectors of malaria and endemic malaria foci in Southern Europe is still not well known. Spain was one of the last countries in Western Europe to be declared free of malaria by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1964. This study combines, by means of a spatial-temporal analysis, the historical data of patients and deceased with the distribution of water bodies where the disease-transmitting mosquitos proliferate. Therefore, data from historical archives with a Geographic Information System (GIS), using the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation method, was analyzed with the aim of identifying regional differences in the distribution of malaria in Spain. The reasons, why the risk of transmission is concentrated in specific regions, are related to worse socioeconomic conditions (Extremadura), the presence of another vector (Anopheles labranchiae) besides A. atroparvus (Levante) or large areas of water bodies in conditions to reproduce theses vectors (La Mancha and Western Andalusia). In the particular case of Western Andalusia, in 1913, the relatively high percentage of 4.73% of the surface, equal to 202362 ha, corresponds to wetlands and other unhealthy water bodies. These wetlands have been reduced as a result of desiccation policies and climate change such as the Little Ice Age and Global Climate Change. The comprehension of the main factors of these wetland changes in the past can help us interpret accurately the future risk of malaria re-emergence in temperate latitudes, since it reveals the crucial role of unhealthy water bodies on the distribution, endemicity and eradication of malaria in southern Europe.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110807896","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,6]],"date-time":"2014-08-06T11:04:13Z","timestamp":1407323053000},"page":"7896-7917","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The Historical Distribution of Main Malaria Foci in Spain as Related to Water Bodies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Arturo","family":"Sousa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of Seville, E-41012 Seville, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Leoncio","family":"Garc\u00eda-Barr\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Physics II, University of Seville, E-41012 Seville, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Vetter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Management and Media, Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences,  Moltkestr. 30, D-76133 Karlsruhe, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julia","family":"Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, University of Seville, E-41012 Seville, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"D\u00edaz, J., Ballester, F., and L\u00f3pez-V\u00e9lez, R. (2005). The Preliminary Assessment of the Impacts in Spain due to Effects of Climate Change, Project ECCE (Evaluaci\u00f3n de los Impactos del Cambio Clim\u00e1tico en Espa\u00f1a), Ministry of the Environment."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"309","article-title":"Informe sobre una misi\u00f3n efectuada en Espa\u00f1a en septiembre-noviembre de 1963 destinada a la certificaci\u00f3n de la erradicaci\u00f3n del paludismo","volume":"39","author":"Pletsch","year":"1965","journal-title":"Revista de Sanidad e Higiene P\u00fablica"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"467","article-title":"Malaria in Spain: Entomological aspects and future outlook","volume":"82","author":"Bueno","year":"2008","journal-title":"Revista Espa\u00f1ola de Salud P\u00fablica"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2013.01.003","article-title":"Plasmodium vivax malaria: A re-emerging threat for temperate climate zones?","volume":"11","author":"Petersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2013.01.001","article-title":"Malaria in Greece: Historical and current reflections on a re-emerging vector borne disease","volume":"11","author":"Danis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Travel Med. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"2","article-title":"First autochthonous malaria case due to Plasmodium vivax since eradication, Spain, October 2010","volume":"15","author":"Adiego","year":"2013","journal-title":"Euro. Surveill"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"231","article-title":"Conflictos entre el desarrollo de las aguas subterr\u00e1neas y la conservaci\u00f3n de los humedales del litoral mediterr\u00e1neo espa\u00f1ol","volume":"119","author":"Ballesteros","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bolet\u00edn Geol\u00f3gico y Minero"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Corominas, J. (1997). Breve Diccionario Etimol\u00f3gico de la Lengua Castellana, Gredos. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"McCarthy, J.J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken, D.J., and White, K.S. (2001). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sainz-Elipe, S., Latorre, J.M., Escosa, R., Masi\u00e0, M., Fuentes, M.V., Mas-Coma, S., and Bargues, M.D. (2010). Malaria resurgence risk in southern Europe: Climate assessment in an historically endemic area of rice fields at the Mediterranean shore of Spain. Malar. J., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-9-221"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2012.09.009","article-title":"A local outbreak of autochthonous Plasmodium vivax malaria in Laconia, Greece-a re-emerging infection in the southern borders of Europe?","volume":"17","author":"Andriopoulos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1948-7134.2011.00168.x","article-title":"Anopheles atroparvus density modeling using MODIS NDVI in a former malarious area in Portugal","volume":"36","author":"Sousa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"701","article-title":"La epidemia de paludismo de la postguerra","volume":"24","year":"1950","journal-title":"Revista de Sanidad e Higiene P\u00fablica"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.23818\/limn.28.24","article-title":"Historical importance of wetlands in malaria transmission in southwest of Spain","volume":"28","author":"Sousa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Limnetica"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Betr\u00e1n, J.L. (2006). Historia de las Epidemias en Espa\u00f1a y sus Colonias (1348\u20131919), La Esfera. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Segura, C. (1990). Diccionario Geogr\u00e1fico de Andaluc\u00eda: Sevilla, Don Quijote. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.4321\/S0211-95362008000100005","article-title":"Health and the war. Changing schemes and health conditions during the Spanish civil war","volume":"28","author":"Barona","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dynamis"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Annual Reports of the Spanish Statistical Institute (SSIbase). Available online:http:\/\/www.ine.es\/inebaseweb\/libros.do?tntp=25687."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1127\/1863-9135\/2012\/0123","article-title":"Past and current trophic development in Lake Ammersee Alterations in a normal range or possible signals of climate change?","volume":"180","author":"Vetter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Fundam. Appl. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Salmi, T., M\u00e4\u00e4tt\u00e4, A., Anttila, P., Ruoho-Airola, T., and Amnell, T. (2002). Detecting Trends of Annual Values of Atmospheric Pollutants by the Mann-Kendall Test and Sen\u2019s Slope Estimates\u2014The Excel Template Application MAKESENS, Finnish Meteorological Institute."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"125","article-title":"Application of spatial technology in malaria research and control: Some new insights","volume":"130","author":"Saxena","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sipe, N.G., and Dale, P. (2003). Challenges in using geographic information systems (GIS) to understand and control malaria in Indonesia. Malar. J., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-2-36"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"72","article-title":"Geographical information system (GIS) in decision support to control malaria\u2014A case study of Koraput district in Orissa, India","volume":"46","author":"Daash","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Vector Borne Dis"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"161","article-title":"Updating historical maps of malaria transmission intensity in East Africa using remote sensing","volume":"68","author":"Omumbo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"517","article-title":"Use of GIS-based spatial modeling approach to characterize the spatial patterns of malaria mosquito vector breeding habitats in northwestern Thailand","volume":"34","author":"Sithiprasasna","year":"2003","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"49","article-title":"GIS and outranking methods for spatial modeling of vulnerability of malaria","volume":"13","author":"Kaffash","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3824","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph9113824","article-title":"Spatial diffusion of Influenza outbreak-related climate factors in Chiang Mai province, Thailand","volume":"9","author":"Nakapan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Garc\u00eda Barr\u00f3n, L., Morales, J., Jurado, V., and Sousa, A. (2006). Clima, Sociedad y Medio Ambiente, Asociaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola de Climatolog\u00eda. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1177\/0959683612455545","article-title":"Changes in the Erica ciliaris Loefl. ex L. peat bogs of southwestern Europe from the 17th to the 20th centuries AD","volume":"23","author":"Sousa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Holocene"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Fabregat, E. (2007). VIII Congreso de la Asociaci\u00f3n de Demograf\u00eda Hist\u00f3rica, Asocaci\u00f3n de Demograf\u00eda Hist\u00f3rica. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Astasio, B. (2003). La Erradicaci\u00f3n del Paludismo en Espa\u00f1a: Aspectos Biol\u00f3gicos de la Lucha Antipal\u00fadica. [PhD Thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid]. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9523.00194","article-title":"Death in town and country. An Analysis of urban\u2013rural differences in mortality","volume":"41","year":"2001","journal-title":"Sociologia Ruralis"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"161","article-title":"The disappearance of Anopheles labranchiae from Spain","volume":"22","year":"1980","journal-title":"Parassitologia"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"10","article-title":"An annotated checklist and bibliography of the mosquitoes of Spain (Diptera: Culicidae)","volume":"8","author":"Eritja","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Mosq. Bull."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"91","article-title":"Updated checklist and distribution maps of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of Spain","volume":"30","author":"Bueno","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Mosq. Bull."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez Ur\u00eda, A. (2001). Hidrogeolog\u00eda y Recursos Hidr\u00e1ulicos, VII Simposio de Hidrogeolog\u00eda. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"18","article-title":"Estado de conservaci\u00f3n de los humedales peninsulares espa\u00f1oles","volume":"66","author":"Casado","year":"1991","journal-title":"Quercus"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Consejer\u00eda de Medio Ambiente (2002). Plan Andaluz de Humedales, Junta de Andaluc\u00eda. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-009-9794-9","article-title":"Wetland place names as indicators of manifestations of recent climate change in SW Spain (Do\u00f1ana Natural Park)","volume":"100","author":"Sousa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1017585101389","article-title":"Can place names be used as indicators of landscape changes? Application to the Do\u00f1ana Natural Park (Spain)","volume":"16","author":"Sousa","year":"2001","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023421202961","article-title":"Changes in the wetlands of Andalusia (Do\u00f1ana Natural Park, SW Spain) at the end of the Little Ice Age","volume":"58","author":"Sousa","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez, S. (1989). Control Integral de Mosquitos en Huelva, Consejer\u00eda de Salud y Servicios Sociales de la Junta de Andaluc\u00eda. (In Spanish)."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"386","article-title":"Potentially emergent vector-borne diseases in the Mediterranean and their possible relationship with climate change","volume":"23","author":"Arcos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emergencias"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Castro-D\u00edez, Y., Esteban-Parra, M.J., Staudt, M., and G\u00e1miz-Fortis, S. (2007). Climate Change in Andalusia: Trends and Environmental Consequences, Consejer\u00eda de Medio Ambiente."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Confalonieri, U., Menne, B., Akhtar, R., Ebi, K.L., Hauengue, M., Kovats, R.S., Revich, B., and Woodward, A. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0088(199909)19:11<1233::AID-JOC413>3.0.CO;2-L","article-title":"A 500 year precipitation record in Southern Spain","volume":"19","author":"Rodrigo","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9997","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1233687100","article-title":"Malaria in Britain: past, present, and future","volume":"19","author":"Kuhn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011995115713","article-title":"Global warming and risk of vivax malaria in Great Britain","volume":"2","author":"Lindsay","year":"2001","journal-title":"Glob. Change Human Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/11\/8\/7896\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:14:27Z","timestamp":1760217267000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/11\/8\/7896"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,6]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph110807896"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph110807896","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,8,6]]}}}