{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:57:40Z","timestamp":1776387460757,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]],"date-time":"2015-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1421971200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Currently, ethylmercury (EtHg) and adjuvant-Al are the dominating interventional exposures encountered by fetuses, newborns, and infants due to immunization with Thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). Despite their long use as active agents of medicines and fungicides, the safety levels of these substances have never been determined, either for animals or for adult humans\u2014much less for fetuses, newborns, infants, and children.  I reviewed the literature for papers reporting on outcomes associated with (a) multiple exposures and metabolism of EtHg and Al during early life; (b) physiological and metabolic characteristics of newborns, neonates, and infants relevant to xenobiotic exposure and effects; (c) neurobehavioral, immunological, and inflammatory reactions to Thimerosal and Al-adjuvants resulting from TCV exposure in infancy. Immunological and neurobehavioral effects of Thimerosal-EtHg and Al-adjuvants are not extraordinary; rather, these effects are easily detected in high and low income countries, with co-exposure to methylmercury (MeHg) or other neurotoxicants. Rigorous and replicable studies (in different animal species) have shown evidence of EtHg and Al toxicities. More research attention has been given to EtHg and findings have showed a solid link with neurotoxic effects in humans; however, the potential synergic effect of both toxic agents has not been properly studied. Therefore, early life exposure to both EtHg and Al deserves due consideration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120201295","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]],"date-time":"2015-01-23T11:20:34Z","timestamp":1422012034000},"page":"1295-1313","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Exposure to Mercury and Aluminum in Early Life: Developmental Vulnerability as a Modifying Factor in Neurologic and Immunologic Effects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"D\u00f3rea","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidade de Brasilia, 70919-970 DF Brasilia, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1159\/000347107","article-title":"Curse on two generations: A history of congenital syphilis","volume":"103","author":"Obladen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neonatology"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"131","article-title":"The pharmacology and toxicology of heavy metals: Mercury","volume":"1","author":"Petering","year":"1976","journal-title":"Pharmac. Ther."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1177\/014107689909200918","article-title":"The puzzle of pink disease","volume":"92","author":"Black","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(53)80195-2","article-title":"Acrodynia and mercury","volume":"42","author":"Warkany","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Heinonen, O.P., Slone, D., and Shapiro, S. (1977). Birth Defects and Drugs in Pregnancy, Publishing Sciences Group."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1080\/10937400701389875","article-title":"A review of Thimerosal (Merthiolate) and its ethylmercury breakdown product: Specific historical considerations regarding safety and effectiveness","volume":"10","author":"Geier","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3771","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph10083771","article-title":"Thimerosal exposure and the role of sulfation chemistry and thiol availability in autism","volume":"10","author":"Kern","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"WHO (2012). Global Advisory Committee on Vaccine Safety, June 2012. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec., 87, 277\u2013288."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"219","article-title":"Controversies surrounding mercury in vaccines: Autism denial as impediment to universal immunization","volume":"11","author":"Chhawchharia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ind. J. Med. Ethics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaw, C.A., Kette, S.D., Davidson, R.M., and Seneff, S. (2013). Aluminum\u2019s role in CNS-immune system interactions leading to neurological disorders. Immunome Res., 9.","DOI":"10.4172\/1745-7580.1000069"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-1157(86)90024-7","article-title":"A survey of the concentrations of eleven metals in vaccines, allergenic extracts, toxoids, blood, blood derivatives and other biological products","volume":"14","author":"May","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Biol. Stand."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Migowski, E. (2007). Vacinas Riscos e Benef\u00edcios, Baxter Hospitalar Ltda.. (In Potuguese)."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2012.10.009","article-title":"Acellular pertussis vaccines in China","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2014.01.004","article-title":"Perinatal multiple exposure to neurotoxic (lead, methylmercury, ethylmercury, and aluminum) substances and neurodevelopment at six and 24 months of age","volume":"187","author":"Marques","year":"2014","journal-title":"Env. Poll."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0b013e31821ed1a4","article-title":"Safety and immunogenicity of a modified process hepatitis B vaccine in healthy infants","volume":"30","author":"Vesikari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2011.12.009","article-title":"Barriers in the developing brain and Neurotoxicology","volume":"33","author":"Ek","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70278-3","article-title":"Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity","volume":"13","author":"Grandjean","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pichery, C., Bellanger, M., Zmirou-Navier, D., Frery, N., Cordier, S., Roue-Legall, A., Hartemann, P., and Grandjean, P. (2012). Economic evaluation of health consequences of prenatal methylmercury exposure in France. Environ. Health, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-11-53"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.14573\/altex.2012.2.202","article-title":"Advancing the science of developmental neurotoxicity (DNT): Testing for better safety evaluation","volume":"29","author":"Coecke","year":"2012","journal-title":"ALTEX"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"196","article-title":"Toxicity of lead, cadmium, and mercury: Considerations for total parenteral nutritional support","volume":"60","author":"Mahaffey","year":"1984","journal-title":"Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krewski, D., Yokel, R.A., Nieboer, E., Borchelt, D., Cohen, J., Harry, J., Kacew, S., Lindsay, J., Mahfouz, A.M., and Rondeau, V. (2007). Human health risk assessment for aluminium, aluminium oxide, and aluminium hydroxide. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev., 10.","DOI":"10.1080\/10937400701597766"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1590\/S0100-879X1999000600012","article-title":"Effects of aluminum sulfate on delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase from kidney, brain, and liver of adult mice","volume":"32","author":"Schetinger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaw, C.A., Seneff, S., Kette, S.D., Tomljenovic, L., Oller, J.W., and Davidson, R.M. (2014). Aluminum-induced entropy in biological systems: Implications for neurological disease. J. Toxicol.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/491316"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1177\/0961203311430221","article-title":"Mechanisms of aluminum adjuvant toxicity and autoimmunity in pediatric populations","volume":"21","author":"Tomljenovic","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-011-0427-0","article-title":"Integrating experimental (in vitro and in vivo) neurotoxicity studies of low-dose thimerosal relevant to vaccines","volume":"36","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4060","DOI":"10.2174\/09298673113209990229","article-title":"Low-dose mercury exposure in early life: Relevance of thimerosal to fetuses, newborns and infants","volume":"20","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-982074","article-title":"Exposure to mercury during the first six months via human milk and vaccines: Modifying risk factors","volume":"24","year":"2007","journal-title":"Amer. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2009.64","article-title":"Infants\u2019 exposure to aluminum from vaccines and breast milk during the first 6 months","volume":"20","author":"Marques","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2005.10.007","article-title":"Early (in uterus and infant) exposure to mercury and lead","volume":"25","author":"Donangelo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1039\/C3EM00374D","article-title":"Human exposure to aluminium","volume":"15","author":"Exley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Process Impacts"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1215431","article-title":"Neonate exposure to thimerosal mercury from hepatitis B vaccines","volume":"26","author":"Marques","year":"2009","journal-title":"Amer. J. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(02)00165-2","article-title":"Aluminum toxicokinetics regarding infant diet and vaccinations","volume":"20","author":"Keith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-3363","article-title":"Mercury levels in newborns and infants after receipt of thimerosal-containing vaccines","volume":"121","author":"Pichichero","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/15287394.2014.861335","article-title":"Milestone achievement and neurodevelopment of rural Amazonian toddlers (12 to 24 months) with different methylmercury and ethylmercury exposure","volume":"77","author":"Marques","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Pt. A"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2013.12.011","article-title":"The retention time of inorganic mercury in the brain\u2014A systematic review of the evidence","volume":"274","author":"Rooney","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-010-8695-0","article-title":"Automated speciation of mercury in the hair of breastfed infants exposed to ethylmercury from thimerosal-containing vaccines","volume":"140","author":"Wimer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2011.05.003","article-title":"Speciation of methyl- and ethyl-mercury in hair of breastfed infants acutely exposed to thimerosal-containing vaccines","volume":"412","author":"Bezerra","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2013.10.020","article-title":"Distribution of aluminum in hair of Brazilian infants and correlation to aluminum-adjuvanted vaccine exposure","volume":"428","author":"Bohrer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1","article-title":"The chemical structure of the body","volume":"41","author":"McCance","year":"1956","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Physiol. Cogn. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.48.10.757","article-title":"Quantitative growth and development of human brain","volume":"48","author":"Dobbing","year":"1973","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/35.5.1169","article-title":"Body composition of reference children from birth to age 10 years","volume":"35","author":"Fomon","year":"1982","journal-title":"Amer. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.2174\/157488407779422294","article-title":"Determinants of drug metabolism in early neonatal life","volume":"2","author":"Allegaert","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3382","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(03)00338-4","article-title":"Mucosal immunity: Integration between mother and the breast-fed infant","volume":"21","author":"Brandtzaeg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-2824","article-title":"Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy","volume":"118","author":"Penders","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1080\/00039896.1984.10545872","article-title":"Effect of diet on mercury metabolism and excretion in mice given methylmercury: Role of gut flora","volume":"39","author":"Rowland","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2009.06.025","article-title":"Beta-casomorphins-7 in infants on different type of feeding and different levels of psychomotor development","volume":"30","author":"Kost","year":"2009","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.7453\/gahmj.2013.087","article-title":"Autism: A redox\/methylation disorder","volume":"2","author":"Deth","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Adv. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1987.tb03137.x","article-title":"Passage of paracetamol into breast milk and its subsequent metabolism by the neonate","volume":"24","author":"Notarianni","year":"1987","journal-title":"Brit. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00300.2006","article-title":"Albumin synthesis in preterm infants on the first day of life studied with [1\u201313C]leucine","volume":"292","author":"Bunt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Amer. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"30","article-title":"Pattern of change of weight following birth in the early neonatal period","volume":"15","author":"Hossain","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mymensingh Med. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1136\/fn.88.6.F472","article-title":"Neonatal weight loss in breast and formula fed infants","volume":"88","author":"Macdonald","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Dis. Child Fetal Neonatal. Ed."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2001.10719033","article-title":"A comparison of intakes of breast-fed and bottle-fed infants during the first two days of life","volume":"20","author":"Dollberg","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Amer. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-3712","article-title":"Mercury content of blood transfusions for infants with extremely low birth weight","volume":"128","author":"Elabiad","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1007\/s12011-013-9743-3","article-title":"Mercury transfer during pregnancy and breastfeeding: Hair mercury concentrations as biomarker","volume":"154","author":"Marques","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.3109\/14767058.2013.823937","article-title":"C-reactive protein: A marker of neonatal stress?","volume":"27","author":"Bellieni","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2011.02427.x","article-title":"Effect of caesarean section on brain maturation","volume":"100","author":"Kapellou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/9.2.159","article-title":"Infection and nutritional status. II. Effect of mild virus infection induced by 17-D yellow fever vaccine on nitrogen metabolism in children","volume":"9","author":"Gandra","year":"1961","journal-title":"Amer. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2013.108","article-title":"Effect of routine vaccination on aluminum and essential element levels in preterm infants","volume":"167","author":"Movsas","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/S1448-8272(03)80002-0","article-title":"Hepatitis B vaccine at birth-just another barrier to breastfeeding?","volume":"16","author":"Eales","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. Mid."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/132.6.1293","article-title":"Breastfeeding attenuates reductions in energy intake induced by a mild immunologic stimulus represented by DPTH immunization: possible roles of interleukin-1beta, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and leptin","volume":"132","author":"Garza","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.2855","article-title":"Toxicity of ethylmercury (and Thimerosal): A comparison with methylmercury","volume":"33","author":"Farina","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1191\/0748233703th158oa","article-title":"The impact of toxicology on public health policy and service: An update","volume":"19","author":"Nickle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Toxicol. Ind. Health"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1007\/s12519-013-0443-z","article-title":"Effect of thimerosal on the neurodevelopment of premature rats","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfu049","article-title":"Transcriptomic analyses of neurotoxic effects in mouse brain after intermittent neonatal administration of thimerosal","volume":"139","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etp.2008.07.002","article-title":"Gender-selective toxicity of thimerosal","volume":"61","author":"Branch","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2007.02.009","article-title":"The biological monitoring of prenatal exposure to methylmercury","volume":"28","author":"Cernichiari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2014.07.009","article-title":"A systematic study of the disposition and metabolism of mercury species in mice after exposure to low levels of thimerosal (ethylmercury)","volume":"134","author":"Carneiro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1002\/jat.1272","article-title":"Thimerosal distribution and metabolism in neonatal mice: Comparison with methyl mercury","volume":"27","author":"Zareba","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2004.07.014","article-title":"Mercury concentrations in brain and kidney following ethylmercury, methylmercury and Thimerosal administration to neonatal mice","volume":"154","author":"Harry","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1007\/s12519-014-0486-9","article-title":"Premature and neonate modeling of Thimerosal exposure and neurodevelopment: Additional comments","volume":"10","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7712","article-title":"Comparison of blood and brain mercury levels in infant monkeys exposed to methylmercury or vaccines containing thimerosal","volume":"113","author":"Burbacher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"659","article-title":"Dose translation from animal to human studies revisited","volume":"22","author":"Nihal","year":"2007","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2013.07.028","article-title":"Accumulation, elimination, and effects of parenteral exposure to aluminum in newborn and adult rats","volume":"128","author":"Veiga","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, Z., Combadiere, C., Authier, F.J., Itier, V., Lux, F., Exley, C., Mahrouf-Yorgov, M., Decrouy, X., Moretto, P., and Tillement, O. (2013). Slow CCL2- dependent translocation of biopersistent particles from muscle to brain. BMC Med., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-11-99"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2013.07.022","article-title":"Administration of aluminium to neonatal mice in vaccine-relevant amounts is associated with adverse long term neurological outcomes","volume":"128","author":"Shaw","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agmon-Levin, N., Arango, M.T., Kivity, S., Katzav, A., Gilburd, B., Blank, M., Tomer, N., Volkov, A., Barshack, I., and Chapman, J. (2014). Immunization with hepatitis B vaccine accelerates SLE-like disease in a murine model. J. Autoimmun.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2014.06.006"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2010.07.008","article-title":"Making sense of epidemiological studies of young children exposed to thimerosal in vacines","volume":"411","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2003.11.017","article-title":"The evidence for the safety of thiomersal in newborn and infant vaccines","volume":"22","author":"Clements","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00f3rea, J.G., Marques, R.C., and Isejima, C. (2012). Neurodevelopment of Amazonian infants: Antenatal and postnatal exposure to methyl- and ethylmercury. J. Biomed. Biotechnol.","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/132876"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, B.E., and Ha, E.H. (2012). Response to commentary \u201cCo-exposure and confounders during neurodevelopment: We need them in the bigger picture of secondhand smoke exposure during pregnancy\u201d. Environ. Res., 112.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2011.09.007"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ntt.2012.10.001","article-title":"Neonatal exposure to Thimerosal from vaccines and child development in the first 3 years of life","volume":"34","author":"Majewska","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mrozek-Budzyn, D., Majewska, R., and Kie\u0142tyka, A. (2014). Early exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and children\u2019s cognitive development. A 9-year prospective birth cohort study in Poland. Eur. J. Pediatr.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-014-2412-5"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8202","article-title":"Renal and neurologic effects of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic in children: Evidence of early effects and multiple interactions at environmental exposure levels","volume":"114","author":"Buchet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Landrigan, P.J., Wright, R.O., and Birnbaum, L.S. (2013). Mercury toxicity in children. Science, 342.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.342.6165.1447"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1002\/msj.20228","article-title":"Methylmercury and brain development: Imprecision and underestimation of developmental neurotoxicity in humans","volume":"78","author":"Grandjean","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mt. Sinai J. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.4103\/1947-2714.143284","article-title":"Thimerosal-containing Hepatitis B vaccination and the risk for diagnosed specific delays in development in the United States: A case-control study in the Vaccine Safety Datalink","volume":"6","author":"Geier","year":"2014","journal-title":"North Amer. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9156","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110909156","article-title":"A dose-response relationship between organic mercury exposure from Thimerosal-containing vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"11","author":"Geier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2008.04.002","article-title":"Thimerosal exposure in infants and neurodevelopmental disorders: An assessment of computerized medical records in the Vaccine Safety Datalink","volume":"271","author":"Young","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"160","article-title":"A two-phased population epidemiological study of the safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: A follow-up analysis","volume":"11","author":"Geier","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1080\/02772240701806501","article-title":"Hepatitis B triple series vaccine and developmental disability in US children aged 1\u20139 years","volume":"90","author":"Gallagher","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicol. Environ. Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.112.5.1039","article-title":"Safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: A two-phased study of computerized health maintenance organization databases","volume":"112","author":"Verstraeten","year":"2003","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2003-1177-L","article-title":"Thimerosal exposure in infants and developmental disorders: A retrospective cohort study in the United Kingdom does not support a causal association","volume":"114","author":"Andrews","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hooker, B.S., Kern, J.K., Geier, D.A., Haley, B.E., Sykes, L.K., King, P.G., and Geier, M.R. (2014). Methodological issues and evidence of malfeasance in research purporting to show Thimerosal in vaccines is safe. Biomed. Res. Int.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/247218"},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"115","article-title":"Concern regarding early exposure to thiomersal and mercury poisoning: Comment on the article by Bensefa-Colas et al.","volume":"33","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Interne"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"87","article-title":"Evaluation of the toxic action of prophylactic and therapeutic preparations on cell cultures. III. The detection of toxic properties in medical biological preparations by the degree of cell damage in the L132 continuous cell line","volume":"3","author":"Kravchenko","year":"1983","journal-title":"Zh. Mikrobiol. Epidemiol. Immunobiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Exley, C. (2012). When an aluminium adjuvant is not an aluminium adjuvant used in human vaccination programmes. Vaccine, 30.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.10.042"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S40","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(02)00170-6","article-title":"Elimination of aluminum adjuvants","volume":"20","author":"Hem","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)02326-5","article-title":"Macrophagic myofasciitis: An emerging entity","volume":"352","author":"Gherardi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2005.05.024","article-title":"Macrophagic myofasciitis in childhood: A controversial entity","volume":"33","author":"Rivas","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-012-1841-2","article-title":"Sixty-four children with persistent itching nodules and contact allergy to aluminium after vaccination with aluminium-adsorbed vaccines-prognosis and outcome after booster vaccination","volume":"172","author":"Bergfors","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1007\/s00431-014-2318-2","article-title":"How common are long-lasting, intensely itching vaccination granulomas and contact allergy to aluminium induced by currently used pediatric vaccines? A prospective cohort study","volume":"173","author":"Bergfors","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lisciandro, J.G., Prescott, S.L., Nadal-Sims, M.G., Devitt, C.J., Pomat, W., Siba, P.M., Tulic, M.C., Holt, P.G., Strickland, D., and van den Biggelaar, A.H. (2012). Ontogeny of Toll-like and NOD-like receptor-mediated innate immune responses in Papua New Guinean infants. PLoS One, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036793"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.07.052","article-title":"A role for impaired regulatory T cell function in adverse responses to aluminum adjuvant-containing vaccines in genetically susceptible individuals","volume":"32","author":"Terhune","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.05.063","article-title":"Aluminium in allergen-specific subcutaneous immunotherapy\u2014A German perspective","volume":"32","author":"Kramer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2007.09.008","article-title":"Principal component analysis and discrimination of variables associated with pre- and post-natal exposure to mercury","volume":"211","author":"Marques","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1097\/WNN.0b013e3181a72248","article-title":"Prenatal and postnatal mercury exposure, breastfeeding and neurodevelopment during the first 5 years","volume":"22","author":"Marques","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cogn. Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2009.01641.x","article-title":"Thimerosal exposure (from tetanus-diphtheria vaccine) during pregnancy and neurodevelopment of breastfed infants at 6 months","volume":"99","author":"Marques","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1017\/S136898001000248X","article-title":"Hydroelectric reservoir inundation (Rio Madeira Basin, Amazon) and changes in traditional lifestyle: Impact on growth and neurodevelopment of pre-school children","volume":"14","author":"Marques","year":"2011","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s00244-011-9697-4","article-title":"Role of methylmercury exposure (from fish consumption) on growth and neurodevelopment of children under 5 years of age living in a transitioning (tin-mining) area of the western Amazon, Brazil","volume":"62","author":"Marques","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marques, R.C., Bernardi, J.V.E., D\u00f3rea, J.G., and Abreu, L. (2014). Neurodevelopment outcomes in children exposed to organic mercury from multiple sources in a tin-ore mine environment in Brazil. Arch. Env. Contam. Toxicol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00244-014-0103-x"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/12\/2\/1295\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:41:56Z","timestamp":1760215316000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/12\/2\/1295"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph120201295"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph120201295","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]]}}}