{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T02:14:30Z","timestamp":1791252870207,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]],"date-time":"2015-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1425945600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A two-year monitoring program of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, Giardia duodenalis cysts, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens spores and adenovirus was conducted in three large rivers in France used for recreational activities and as a resource for drinking water production. Fifty-liter river water and one thousand-liter tap water samples were concentrated using hollow-fiber ultrafiltration and analyzed by molecular biology or laser-scanning cytometry. In order to evaluate watershed land use influence on microorganism concentration changes, occurrence and seasonality of microorganisms were studied. The highest concentrations of protozoan parasites and C. perfringens were found for one of the three sites, showing a high proportion of agricultural territories, forests and semi-natural environments, which may be partly attributable to soil leaching due to rainfall events. On the contrary, the highest concentrations of adenoviruses were found at the two other sites, probably due to strong urban activities. Health risk assessment was evaluated for each waterborne pathogen regarding exposure during recreational activities (for a single or five bathing events during the summer). The calculated risk was lower than 0.5% for parasites and varied from 1% to 42% for adenovirus. A theoretical assessment of microorganism removal during the drinking water treatment process was also performed, and it showed that an absence of microorganisms could be expected in finished drinking water. This hypothesis was confirmed since all tested tap water samples were negative for each studied microorganism, resulting in a risk for drinking water consumption lower than 0.01% for parasites and lower than 0.5% for adenovirus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120302967","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]],"date-time":"2015-03-10T10:59:09Z","timestamp":1425985149000},"page":"2967-2983","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Health Risk Assessment Related to Waterborne Pathogens from the River to the Tap"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Pauline","family":"Jacob","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Veolia Recherche et Innovation, Immeuble le Dufy, Centre de recherche de Saint Maurice, 1 place de Turenne, 94417 St Maurice Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Annabelle","family":"Henry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veolia Recherche et Innovation, Immeuble le Dufy, Centre de recherche de Saint Maurice, 1 place de Turenne, 94417 St Maurice Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ga\u00eblle","family":"Meheut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veolia Recherche et Innovation, Immeuble le Dufy, Centre de recherche de Saint Maurice, 1 place de Turenne, 94417 St Maurice Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nadine","family":"Charni-Ben-Tabassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veolia Recherche et Innovation, Immeuble le Dufy, Centre de recherche de Saint Maurice, 1 place de Turenne, 94417 St Maurice Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Val\u00e9rie","family":"Ingrand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veolia Recherche et Innovation, Immeuble le Dufy, Centre de recherche de Saint Maurice, 1 place de Turenne, 94417 St Maurice Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karim","family":"Helmi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veolia Recherche et Innovation, Immeuble le Dufy, Centre de recherche de Saint Maurice, 1 place de Turenne, 94417 St Maurice Cedex, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.12.032","article-title":"Foodborne protozoan parasites","volume":"103","author":"Dawson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2008.04.018","article-title":"A longitudinal study of cryptosporidiosis in dairy cattle from birth to 2 years of age","volume":"155","author":"Santin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00135-1","article-title":"Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: Transmission, detection and identification","volume":"30","author":"Fayer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2006.02.009","article-title":"Tools for investigating the environmental transmission of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in humans","volume":"22","author":"Smith","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3494","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.58.11.3494-3500.1992","article-title":"Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under various environmental pressures","volume":"58","author":"Robertson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1888","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.61.5.1888-1896.1995","article-title":"Survival of fecal microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments","volume":"61","author":"Davies","year":"1995","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2079","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02495-07","article-title":"Interactions of Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, vaccinal poliovirus type 1, and bacteriophages phiX174 and MS2 with a drinking water biofilm and a wastewater biofilm","volume":"74","author":"Helmi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1991","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq1999.00472425002800060040x","article-title":"Giardia cyst and Cryptosporidium oocyst survival in water, soil, and cattle feces","volume":"28","author":"Olson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.1997.0700","article-title":"Waterborne adenovirus: A risk assessment","volume":"35","author":"Crabtree","year":"1997","journal-title":"Water Sci.Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Kapikian, A.Z., and Wyatt, R.G. (1992). Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Elsevier. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.28.8.1780-1784.1990","article-title":"Adenovirus types 40 and 41 and rotaviruses associated with diarrhea in children from Guatemala","volume":"28","author":"Cruz","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hendrix, R.M., Lindner, J.L., Benton, F.R., Monteith, S.C., Tuchscherer, M.A., Gray, G.C., and Gaydos, J.C. (1999). Large, persistent epidemic of adenovirus type 4-associated acute respiratory disease in U.S. army trainess. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 798\u2013801.","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0506.990609"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.67.1.179-184.2001","article-title":"Human adenoviruses and coliphages in urban runoff-impacted coastal waters of Southern California","volume":"67","author":"Jiang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Russel, W.C., and Benk, M. (1999). Encyclopedia of Virology, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"King, A.M., Adams, M.J., Carstens, E.B., and Lefkowitz, E. (2012). Virus Taxonomy: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2012.04.008","article-title":"Relationships between human adenoviruses and faecal indicator organisms in European recreational waters","volume":"46","author":"Wyer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3376","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.64.9.3376-3382.1998","article-title":"Viral pollution in the environment and in shellfish: Human adenovirus detection by PCR as an index of human viruses","volume":"64","author":"Pina","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1128\/MMBR.69.2.357-371.2005","article-title":"Enteric viruses of humans and animals in aquatic environments: Health risks, detection, and potential water quality assessment tools","volume":"69","author":"Fong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7132","DOI":"10.1021\/es060892o","article-title":"Human adenoviruses in water: Occurrence and health implications: A critical review","volume":"40","author":"Jiang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edberg, S.C., Rice, E.W., Karlin, R.J., and Allen, M.J. (2000). Escherichia coli: The best biological drinking water indicator for public health protection. Symp. Ser. Soc. Appl. Microbiol., 106S\u2013116S.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2000.tb05338.x"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Poumeyrol, M., and Popoff, M. Fiche de description de danger transmissible par les aliments: Clostridium perfingens. Available online: http:\/\/www.infectiologie.com\/site\/medias\/_documents\/officiels\/afssa\/Cperf090207.pdf."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2005.01736.x","article-title":"Quantification of Escherichia coli by kinetic 5'-nuclease polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) oriented to sfmD gene","volume":"41","author":"Kaclikova","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1089\/fpd.2007.0066","article-title":"The identification and characterization of Clostridium perfringens by real-time PCR, location of enterotoxin gene, and heat resistance","volume":"5","author":"Grant","year":"2008","journal-title":"Foodborne. Pathog. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"McBride, G., Till, D., Ryan, T., Ball, A., Lewis, G., Palmer, S., and Weinstein, P. Freshwater Microbiology Research Programme Report; Ministery for the Environment Manata Mo Te Taiao: 2002. Available online: http:\/\/mfe.govt.nz\/publications\/water\/freshwater-microbiology-nov02\/freshwater-microbiology-main-nov02.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199503303321304","article-title":"The infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum in healthy volunteers","volume":"332","author":"DuPont","year":"1995","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Haas, C.N., Rose, J.B., and Gerba, C.P. (1999). Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment, John Wiley & Sons Inc."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"133","article-title":"Waterborne adenovirus","volume":"198","author":"Mena","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1551-8833.1991.tb07252.x","article-title":"Modeling the risk from Giardia and viruses from drinking water","volume":"83","author":"Regli","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. AWWA"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2006.0026","article-title":"Water ingestion during swimming activities in a pool: A pilot study","volume":"4","author":"Dufour","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2008.03.006","article-title":"Molecular characterisation of species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and Giardia and assessment of zoonotic transmission","volume":"38","author":"Xiao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1080\/09603120601095100","article-title":"Investigation of potential zooanthroponotic transmission of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis through agricultural use of reclaimed wastewater","volume":"16","author":"Betancourt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1875","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2007.0413","article-title":"Farm factors associated with reducing Cryptosporidium loading in storm runoff from dairies","volume":"37","author":"Miller","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.07.010","article-title":"Cryptosporidium and Giardia detection in water bodies of Galicia, Spain","volume":"44","author":"Mezo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-010-1726-7","article-title":"Two-year monitoring of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia occurrence in a recreational and drinking water reservoir using standard microscopic and molecular biology techniques","volume":"179","author":"Helmi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.61.6.2235-2241.1995","article-title":"Occurrence of fecal indicator bacteria in surface waters and the subsurface aquifer in Key Largo, Florida","volume":"61","author":"Paul","year":"1995","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7269","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.70.12.7269-7276.2004","article-title":"Occurrence of microbial indicators and Clostridium perfringens in wastewater, water column samples, sediments, drinking water, and Weddell seal feces collected at McMurdo Station, Antarctica","volume":"70","author":"Lisle","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5089","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01396-13","article-title":"Clostridium perfringens is not suitable for the indication of fecal pollution from ruminant wildlife but is associated with excreta from nonherbivorous animals and human sewage","volume":"79","author":"Vierheilig","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4561","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00177-06","article-title":"Further comparison of temperature effects on growth and survival of Clostridium perfringens type A isolates carrying a chromosomal or plasmid-borne enterotoxin gene","volume":"72","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.1997.0742","article-title":"Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli, faecal enterococci and Clostridium perfringens in river water. Influence of temperature and autochthonous micro-organisms","volume":"35","author":"Medema","year":"1997","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2011.05130.x","article-title":"Occurrence of adenovirus and other enteric viruses in limited-contact freshwater recreational areas and bathing waters","volume":"111","author":"Aslan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.2307\/1352950","article-title":"The effects of seasonal variability and weather on microbial fecal pollution and enteric pathogens in a subtropical estuary","volume":"24","author":"Lipp","year":"2001","journal-title":"Estuaries"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1348-0421.1995.tb02245.x","article-title":"Seasonal distribution of adenoviruses, enteroviruses and reoviruses in urban river water","volume":"39","author":"Tani","year":"1995","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"485","article-title":"Waterborne enteroviruses as a hazard for human health","volume":"10","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Teunis, P.F.M., Havelaar, A.H., and Medema, G.J. A literature Survey on the Assessment of Microbiological Risk for Drinking Water. Available online: http:\/\/rivm.openrepository.com\/rivm\/bitstream\/10029\/10480\/1\/734301006.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1128\/br.30.3.517-529.1966","article-title":"Effect of route of inoculation on experimental respiratory viral disease in volunteers and evidence for airborne transmission","volume":"30","author":"Couch","year":"1966","journal-title":"Bacteriol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2004.09.002","article-title":"Drinking water treatment processes for removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia","volume":"126","author":"Betancourt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1080\/01919510009408793","article-title":"Pilot-scale ozone inactivation of Cryptosporidium and other microorganisms in natural water","volume":"22","author":"Owens","year":"1999","journal-title":"Ozone Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Kritsevskaja, M. Ozone in Drinking Water Treatment. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). Available online: http:\/\/www.eolss.net\/Sample-Chapters\/C07\/E6-192-08-00.pdf."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1423","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.56.5.1423-1428.1990","article-title":"Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability","volume":"56","author":"Korich","year":"1990","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Environmental Protection Agency (2015). Water Treatment Manual: Disinfection, EPA Office of Environmental Enforcement."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4053","DOI":"10.1016\/S0043-1354(02)00092-1","article-title":"Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts with ozone and free chlorine","volume":"36","author":"Samuelson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"850","article-title":"Monitoring of three drinking water treatment plants using flow cytometry","volume":"14","author":"Helmi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1418","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.49.6.1418-1428.1985","article-title":"Elimination of viruses and indicator bacteria at each step of treatment during preparation of drinking water at seven water treatment plants","volume":"49","author":"Payment","year":"1985","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/12\/3\/2967\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:43:18Z","timestamp":1760215398000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/12\/3\/2967"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph120302967"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph120302967","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]]}}}