{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T05:32:34Z","timestamp":1783143154954,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,5]],"date-time":"2016-03-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1457136000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The treatment of alcohol use disorder (AUD) with sodium oxybate (SMO) or gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) was introduced in Italy and Austria more than 20 years and 15 years ago, respectively, and it is now widely employed to treat alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) and to maintain alcohol abstinence. These indications derive from its similar structure to the inhibitory neurotransmitter \u03b3-amino-butyric acid (GABA), exerting an ethanol-mimicking effect, because it binds to GABAB receptors. Craving for, and abuse of, SMO remain a controversial issue; even though these unfavorable effects are evident in poly-drug addicted patients and in those with psychiatric diagnosis of borderline personality disorder. In addition, despite cases of severe intoxication and deaths being widely documented when GHB is used as \u201cstreet drug\u201d; its clinical use remains safe. Thus, the aim of the present review is to examine the role of SMO in the treatment of AUD, its possible implications in reducing alcohol consumption, and cases of abuse, and severe intoxication due to SMO during its clinical use in the treatment of AUD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13030290","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,7]],"date-time":"2016-03-07T10:25:00Z","timestamp":1457346300000},"page":"290","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["A Brief Up-Date of the Use of Sodium Oxybate for the Treatment of Alcohol Use Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8953-8338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Caputo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, SS Annunziata Hospital, Cento, Ferrara 44042, Italy"},{"name":"\u201cG. Fontana\u201d Centre for the Study and Multidisciplinary Treatment of Alcohol Addiction, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna 40130, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teo","family":"Vignoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit for Addiction Treatment, Department of Mental Health, Lugo, Ravenna 48022, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudia","family":"Tarli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alcohol Use Disorders Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Catholic University of Rome, Rome 00168, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Domenicali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cG. Fontana\u201d Centre for the Study and Multidisciplinary Treatment of Alcohol Addiction, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna 40130, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giorgio","family":"Zoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, SS Annunziata Hospital, Cento, Ferrara 44042, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1308-5440","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauro","family":"Bernardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"\u201cG. Fontana\u201d Centre for the Study and Multidisciplinary Treatment of Alcohol Addiction, Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna 40130, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Addolorato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alcohol Use Disorders Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Catholic University of Rome, Rome 00168, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2721","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra044047","article-title":"Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid","volume":"352","author":"Snead","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. 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