{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,2]],"date-time":"2026-01-02T07:41:54Z","timestamp":1767339714354,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,8]],"date-time":"2016-09-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1473292800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently issued a notice of violation against Volkswagen (VW) for installing a defective device in certain models of diesel cars to circumvent emission tests for nitrogen oxides (NOx). We quantified the health and economic impacts of extra NOx emissions attributable to non-compliant vehicles in the U.S. using the EPA\u2019s Co-Benefits Risk Assessment model. We estimated that the total extra NOx emitted over one year of operation would result in 5 to 50 premature deaths, 687 to 17,526 work days with restricted activity, and economic costs of $43,479,189 to $423,268,502, based on various assumptions regarding emission scenarios and risks. This study highlights the potential impacts of VW vehicles\u2019 lack of compliance on the health and well-being of the U.S. population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph13090891","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,8]],"date-time":"2016-09-08T10:08:36Z","timestamp":1473329316000},"page":"891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Public Health Impact and Economic Costs of Volkswagen\u2019s Lack of Compliance with the United States\u2019 Emission Standards"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Lifang","family":"Hou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preventive Medicine and the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0393-5955","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kai","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, University of Texas School of Public Health, Houston, TX 77030, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4186-1603","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Moira","family":"Luthin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Baccarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY 10032, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,8]]},"reference":[{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) EPA, California Notify Volkswagen of Clean Air Act Violations\/Carmaker Allegedly Used Software That Circumvents Emissions Testing for Certain Air Pollutants, 2015, Available online: http:\/\/yosemite.epa.gov\/opa\/admpress.nsf\/6424ac1caa800aab85257359003f5337\/dfc8e33b5ab162b985257ec40057813b!OpenDocument.","key":"ref_1"},{"unstructured":"World Health Organization Global Health Observatory. Available online: http:\/\/apps.who.int\/gho\/data\/node.main.156?lang=en.","key":"ref_2"},{"unstructured":"Health Effects Institute Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects, 2010. Available online: http:\/\/pubs.healtheffects.org\/getfile.php?u=553.","key":"ref_3"},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act from 1990 to 2020, 2010, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-07\/documents\/fullreport_rev_a.pdf.","key":"ref_4"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.erss.2014.12.002","article-title":"Uncertainty in energy planning: Estimating the health impacts of air pollution from fossil fuel electricity generation","volume":"4","author":"Bridges","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Res. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9712","article-title":"Quantifying the Efficiency and Equity Implications of Power Plant Air Pollution Control Strategies in the United States","volume":"115","author":"Levy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1999). Regulatory Impact Analysis\u2014Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Tier 2 Motor Vehicle Emissions Standards and Gasoline Sulfur Control Requirements.","key":"ref_7"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2012.11.004","article-title":"Quantifying the health and environmental benefits of wind power to natural gas","volume":"53","author":"McCubbin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) User\u2019s Manual for the Co-Benefits Risk Assessment (COBRA) Screening Model (version 2.7), 2015, Available online: http:\/\/www3.epa.gov\/statelocalclimate\/documents\/pdf\/COBRA_manual.pdf.","key":"ref_9"},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Tier 2 Exhaust Emission Standards and Implementation Schedule, 2012, Available online: http:\/\/www3.epa.gov\/otaq\/standards\/light-duty\/tier2stds.htm.","key":"ref_10"},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Notice of Violation, 2015, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-10\/documents\/vw-nov-caa-09-18-15.pdf.","key":"ref_11"},{"unstructured":"U.S. Federal Highway Administration Highway Statistics 2013, 2015, Available online: http:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/policyinformation\/statistics\/2013\/vm1.cfm.","key":"ref_12"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"5","article-title":"Extended follow-up and spatial analysis of the American Cancer Society study linking particulate air pollution and mortality","volume":"140","author":"Krewski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Res. Rep. Health Eff. Inst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1104660","article-title":"Chronic exposure to fine particles and mortality: An extended follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities study from 1974 to 2009","volume":"120","author":"Lepeule","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Health and Welfare Benefits Analyses to Support the Second Section 812 Benefit-Cost Analysis of the Clean Air Act, 2011, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-07\/documents\/benefitsfullreport.pdf.","key":"ref_15"},{"unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) EPA, California Notify Volkswagen of Additional Clean Air Act Violations, 2015d, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-11\/documents\/vw-nov-2015-11-02.pdf.","key":"ref_16"},{"unstructured":"Volkswagenag (VW) AG Clarification Moving Forward: Internal Investigations at Volkswagen Identify Irregularities in CO2 Levels, 2015. Available online: http:\/\/www.volkswagenag.com\/content\/vwcorp\/info_center\/en\/news\/2015\/11\/internen_untersuchungen.html.","key":"ref_17"},{"unstructured":"National Research Council Estimating Mortality Risk Reduction and Economic Benefits from Controlling Ozone Air Pollution, 2008. Available online: http:\/\/www.nap.edu\/read\/12198.","key":"ref_18"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/13\/9\/891\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T19:30:29Z","timestamp":1760211029000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/13\/9\/891"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,8]]},"references-count":18,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph13090891"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph13090891","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,8]]}}}