{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:44:55Z","timestamp":1787028295836,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]],"date-time":"2017-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491955200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study appraises New Orleans soil lead and children\u2019s lead exposure before and ten years after Hurricane Katrina flooded the city. Introduction: Early childhood exposure to lead is associated with lifelong and multiple health, learning, and behavioral disorders. Lead exposure is an important factor hindering the long-term resilience and sustainability of communities. Lead exposure disproportionately affects low socioeconomic status of communities. No safe lead exposure is known and the common intervention is not effective. An essential responsibility of health practitioners is to develop an effective primary intervention. Methods: Pre- and post-Hurricane soil lead and children\u2019s blood lead data were matched by census tract communities. Soil lead and blood lead data were described, mapped, blood lead graphed as a function of soil lead, and Multi-Response Permutation Procedures statistics established disparities. Results: Simultaneous decreases occurred in soil lead accompanied by an especially large decline in children\u2019s blood lead 10 years after Hurricane Katrina. Exposure disparities still exist between children living in the interior and outer areas of the city. Conclusions: At the scale of a city, this study demonstrates that decreasing soil lead effectively reduces children\u2019s blood lead. Primary prevention of lead exposure can be accomplished by reducing soil lead in the urban environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14040407","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]],"date-time":"2017-04-12T10:15:06Z","timestamp":1491992106000},"page":"407","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Soil Lead and Children\u2019s Blood Lead Disparities in Pre- and Post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans (USA)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0979-3807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Howard","family":"Mielke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Gonzales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Powell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lead Lab, Inc., New Orleans, LA 70119, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0965-178","article-title":"The metabolism of cities","volume":"213","author":"Wolman","year":"1965","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyr236","article-title":"The exposome: from concept to utility","volume":"41","author":"Wild","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2593","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8072593","article-title":"The Protean Toxicities of Lead: New Chapters in a Familiar Story","volume":"8","author":"Bellinger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2017.1560","article-title":"Childhood lead exposure and adult outcomes","volume":"317","author":"Bellinger","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12866","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph111212866","article-title":"The Public Health Exposome: A Population-Based, Exposure Science Approach to Health Disparities Research","volume":"11","author":"Juarez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-015-0124-9","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic differences in childhood blood lead levels among children <72 months of age in the United States: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"3","author":"White","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/S0892-0362(02)00269-6","article-title":"Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents. A case control study","volume":"24","author":"Needleman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurotoxicol. Teratol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2012.03.005","article-title":"The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence","volume":"43","author":"Mielke","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016, December 12). CDC Response to Advisory Committee on Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Recommendations in \u201cLow Level Lead Exposure Harms Children: A Renewed Call for Primary Prevention\u201d, Available online: http:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nceh\/lead\/acclpp\/cdc_response_lead_exposure_recs.pdf."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5718","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1321909111","article-title":"Neural representations of ethologically relevant hand\/mouth synergies in the human Precentral gyrus","volume":"111","author":"Desmurget","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.99107431","article-title":"Dietary calcium intakes of urban children at risk of lead poisoning","volume":"107","author":"Bruening","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"CD006047","article-title":"Household interventions for preventing domestic lead exposure in children","volume":"16","author":"Yeoh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2015.09.009","article-title":"Evaluating the effectiveness of state specific lead-based paint hazard risk reduction laws in preventing recurring incidences of lead poisoning in children","volume":"219","author":"Kennedy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"National Research Council (2012). Exposure Science in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy, National Research Council."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mielke, H.W., Gonzales, C.R., Powell, E.T., and Mielke, P.W. (2016). Spatiotemporal dynamic transformations of soil lead and children\u2019s blood lead ten years after Hurricane Katrina: New grounds for primary prevention. Environ. Int.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.06.017"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.01.036","article-title":"Spatiotemporal exposome dynamics of soil lead and children\u2019s blood lead pre- and ten years post-Hurricane Katrina: Lead and other metals on public and private properties in the city of New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A.","volume":"155","author":"Mielke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"U.S. Bureau of the Census (1993). Table 32: Selected Structural Characteristics of Housing Units: 1990; and Summary Tape File 3A, Tracts and Block Numbering Areas. New Orleans, LA MSA."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph2005020016","article-title":"Changes of multiple metal accumulation (MMA) in New Orleans soil: Preliminary evaluation of differences between Survey I (1992) and Survey II (2000)","volume":"2","author":"Mielke","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.97105950","article-title":"Associations between Soil Lead and Childhood Blood Lead in Urban New Orleans and Rural Lafourche Parish of Louisiana","volume":"105","author":"Mielke","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2017, April 05). Final Report: Revised California Human Health Screening Levels for Lead and Beryllium, Available online: https:\/\/oehha.ca.gov\/risk\/soils091709."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mielke, P.W., and Berry, K.J. (2007). Permutation Methods: A Distance Function Approach, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-69813-7"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2016, December 13). Surfer\u00ae 8, Golden Software, Inc.. Available online: http:\/\/www.goldensoftware.com\/products\/surfer."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"231","article-title":"Development of exposome correlation globes to map out environment-wide associations","volume":"20","author":"Patel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pac. Symp. Biocomput."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"U.S. DHHS (Department of Health and Human Services). National Toxicology Program (2017, April 05). Monograph on Health Effects of Low-Level Lead, Available online: http:\/\/ntp.niehs.nih.gov\/go\/36443."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-008-9190-9","article-title":"Human geography of New Orleans\u2019 urban soil lead contaminated geochemical setting","volume":"30","author":"Campanella","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Henderson, Y. (The New York Times, 1925). Sees Deadly gas a peril in streets. New York Times (1923-Current File): ProQuest Historical Newspapers, The New York Times."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"854","article-title":"Analysis of U.S. soil lead (Pb) studies from 1970 to 2012","volume":"468\u2013469","author":"Wilkie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2011.06.010","article-title":"The continuing impact of lead dust on children\u2019s blood lead: Comparison of public and private properties in New Orleans","volume":"111","author":"Mielke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2010.08.006","article-title":"Estimation of leaded (Pb) gasoline\u2019s continuing material and health impacts on 90 U.S. urbanized areas","volume":"37","author":"Mielke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(99)00462-3","article-title":"Quantities and associations of lead, zinc, cadmium, manganese, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and copper in fresh Mississippi delta alluvium and New Orleans alluvial soils","volume":"246","author":"Mielke","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2003.11.011","article-title":"PAHs and metals in the soils of inner-city and suburban New Orleans, LA, USA","volume":"18","author":"Mielke","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2006.08.007","article-title":"Potential lead on play surfaces: Evaluation of the \u201cPLOPS\u201d sampler as a new tool for primary lead prevention","volume":"103","author":"Mielke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198306093082301","article-title":"Chronological trend in blood lead levels between 1976 and 1980","volume":"308","author":"Annest","year":"1983","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2011.11.030","article-title":"Re-suspension of lead contaminated urban soil as a dominant source of atmospheric lead in Birmingham, Chicago, Detroit and Pittsburgh, USA","volume":"49","author":"Laidlaw","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2839","DOI":"10.1021\/es303854c","article-title":"Linking source and effect: Resuspended soil lead, air lead, and children\u2019s blood lead levels in Detroit, Michigan","volume":"47","author":"Zahran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1353\/pbm.0.0136","article-title":"The Elephant in the Playground: Confronting lead-contaminated soils as an important source of lead burdens to urban populations","volume":"53","author":"Filippelli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Perspect. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310, 2191\u20132194.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.281053"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2012.10.013","article-title":"Environmental and health disparities in residential communities of New Orleans: The need for soil lead intervention to advance primary prevention","volume":"51","author":"Mielke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laidlaw, M.A.S., Filippelli, G.M., Brown, S., Paz-Ferreiro, J., Reichman, S.M., Netherway, P., Truskewycz, A., Ball, A.S., and Mielke, H.W. (2017). Case studies and evidence-based approaches to addressing urban soil lead contamination. Appl. Geochem.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2017.02.015"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2010.11.008","article-title":"Soil intervention as a strategy for lead exposure prevention: The New Orleans lead-safe childcare playground project","volume":"159","author":"Mielke","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7482","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph110707482","article-title":"Evolving from reactive to proactive medicine: Community lead (Pb) and clinical disparities in pre- and post-Katrina New Orleans","volume":"11","author":"Mielke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gustavsson, N., B\u00f8lviken, B., Smith, D.B., and Severson, R.C. (2001). Geochemical Landscapes of the Conterminous United States\u2014New Map Presentations for 22 Elements. Professional Paper 1648.","DOI":"10.3133\/pp1648"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/14\/4\/407\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:32:31Z","timestamp":1760207551000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/14\/4\/407"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph14040407"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph14040407","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,12]]}}}