{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T18:48:12Z","timestamp":1773859692026,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,12]],"date-time":"2018-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1518393600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to inaccessibility of potable water, rural communities drill boreholes within their homesteads despite vulnerability to groundwater contamination and associated health risks. This study assessed the quality of groundwater, identified potential sources of contamination and potential human health risks in Siloam Village, South Africa. Statistical difference between similar water quality parameters at different sites was determined at a significance level (\u03b1) of 0.05. Water quality parameters with serious potential health effects on human beings were correlated with selected water quality parameters to understand the nature of correlation and possible sources of contamination. Fluorides and nitrates had excessively high concentrations associated with tooth damage and pronounced skeletal fluorosis, and methaemoglobinaemia in infants and mucous membrane irritation in adults, respectively. There were statistically significant differences between means of most water quality parameters. Contrasting correlation of fluoride with calcium and pH indicated the need to further identify local sources and fluoride control mechanisms. Correlation of nitrate with chloride mostly indicated that faecal contamination is the potential source of high nitrates in groundwater. This requires further verification. Presence of total coliforms and E. coli in most boreholes indicated potential presence of faecal contamination. The need to educate borehole owners\u2019 on possible strategies to minimise groundwater pollution was identified.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15020317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,12]],"date-time":"2018-02-12T10:50:38Z","timestamp":1518432638000},"page":"317","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Chemical and Microbial Quality of Groundwater in Siloam Village, Implications to Human Health and Sources of Contamination"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Odiyo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rachel","family":"Makungo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hydrology and Water Resources, University of Venda, Thohoyandou 0950, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2004.08.027","article-title":"Using geochemical data and modelling to enhance the understanding of groundwater flow in a regional deep aquifer, Aquitaine Basin, South-West of France","volume":"305","author":"Franceschi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Sherman, H.M. (1998). The Assessment of Groundwater Quality in Rural Communities: Two Case Studies from KwaZulu-Natal. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Natal]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.4314\/wsa.v41i2.04","article-title":"Groundwater quality on dairy farms in central South Africa","volume":"41","author":"Esterhuizen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Ncube, E.J. (2006). The Distribution of Fluoride in South African Groundwater and the Impact There of on Dental Health. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Pretoria]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dedzo, M.G., Tsozu\u00e9, D., Mimba, M.E., Tedd, F., Nembungwe, R.M., and Linida, S. (2017). Importance of rocks and their weathering products on groundwater quality in Central-East Cameroon. Hydrology, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/hydrology4020023"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1","article-title":"Rock-water interaction and chemical quality analysis of groundwater in hard rock terrain of Chamrajanagara District, Karnataka, India using geoinformatics","volume":"1","author":"Basavarajappa","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Org. Inorg. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"DWA (2010). Groundwater Strategy 2010."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1206028","article-title":"Pit latrines and their impacts on groundwater quality: A systematic review","volume":"121","author":"Graham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Holland, M. (2011). Hydrogeological Characterisation of Crystalline Basement Aquifers within the Limpopo Province, South Africa. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pretoria]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2006.890","article-title":"Microbiological quality of groundwater sources used by rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa","volume":"54","author":"Potgieter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2006.08.031","article-title":"Assessment of the impacts of pit latrines on groundwater quality in rural areas: A case study from Marondera district, Zimbabwe","volume":"31","author":"Dzwairo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph200704040007","article-title":"Assessment of groundwater quality in a typical rural settlement in Southwest Nigeria","volume":"4","author":"Adekunle","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2015.11.006","article-title":"Are sanitation interventions a threat to drinking water supplies in rural India? An application of tryptophan-like fluorescence","volume":"88","author":"Sorensen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Hoorweg, J. (1998). The impact of geology and pit latrines on groundwater quality in Kwale District. Dunes, Groundwater, Mangroves and Birdlife in Coastal Kenya, Acts Press."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Odiyo, J.O., and Makungo, R. (2012). Water Quality Problems and Management in Rural Areas of Limpopo Province, South Africa, Water Pollution XI, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment.","DOI":"10.2495\/WP120121"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.4314\/wsa.v38i5.12","article-title":"Fluoride concentrations in groundwater and human health impact in Siloam Village, Limpopo Province, South Africa","volume":"38","author":"Odiyo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Water SA"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"150","article-title":"Correlation study for assessment of water quality and its parameters of par river Valsad, Gujarat, India","volume":"2","author":"Patel","year":"2015","journal-title":"IJIERE"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ashton, P., Love, D., Mahachi, H., and Dirks, P. (2001). An Overview of the Impacts of Mining and Mineral Processing Operations on Water Resources and Water Quality in the Zambezi, Limpopo and Olifants Catchments in Southern Africa, International Institute for Environment and Development. MMSD Southern Africa Research Reports, Report No. ENV-P-C 2001-042."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Du Toit, W.H., Mulin, H., and Jonck, F. (2002). 1:500,000 Hydrogeological Map Series of the Republic of South Africa, Messina 2230, DWAF. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-007-9094-3","article-title":"Groundwater in the Limpopo Basin: Occurrence, use and impact","volume":"10","author":"Busari","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Dev. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"DWAF, DoH, and WRC (1998). Volume 1: Assessment Guide. Quality of Domestic Water Supplies, DWAF. [2nd ed.]. Water Research Commission No: TT 101\/98."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"DWAF, DoH, and WRC (2000). Volume 2: Sampling Guide. Quality of Domestic Water Supplies, DWAF. [1st ed.]. Water Research Commission No: TT 117\/99."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"DWAF (1996). Volume 1: Domestic water use, South African Water Quality Guidelines."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"54","article-title":"Groundwater quality status with respect to fluoride contamination in industrial area of Angul District Orissa India","volume":"1","author":"Reza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Indian J. Sci. Res. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"920","article-title":"Monitoring of fluoride concentration in groundwater of Kadayam Block of Tirunelveli District, India: Correlation with physico-chemical parameters","volume":"1","author":"Alagumuthu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rasayan J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Mudau, T.C. (2011). Effects of Pit Latrines Location on Groundwater of Nzhelele Village within Limpopo Province. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Venda]."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Misi, A. (2016). 2016 Assessment of Groundwater Potential and Vulnerability in the Upper Manyame Sub-Catchment of Zimbabwe. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Zimbabwe]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3233\/AJW-2005-2_1_07","article-title":"Hydrochemical study of groundwater fluoride","volume":"2","author":"Sharma","year":"2005","journal-title":"Asian J. Water Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"37","article-title":"Fluoride geochemistry of groundwater in parts of Brahmaputra flood plain in Kamrup district, Assam, India","volume":"3","author":"Chakrabarty","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Appl. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"1421","article-title":"Fluorosis in Assam, India","volume":"78","author":"Chakraborti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Curr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1199","article-title":"Monitoring of fluoride concentration in ground water of Small Tea Gardens in Sonitpur District, Assam, India: Correlation with physico-chemical parameters","volume":"2","author":"Dutta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. ChemTech Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1699","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2257-7","article-title":"Geochemical processes regulating groundwater chemistry with special reference to nitrate and fluoride enrichment in Chhatarpur area, Madhya Pradesh, India","volume":"70","author":"Avtar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2992","article-title":"Geochemical evaluation and nitrate in groundwater: A case study from Qinkenpao area, Daqing, China","volume":"2","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"50","article-title":"Correlation of fluoride with some inorganic constituents in groundwater of Dashtestan, Iran","volume":"42","author":"Dobaradaran","year":"2009","journal-title":"Fluoride"},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"10045","article-title":"Fluoride contamination status of groundwater in East Coastal area in Tamilnadu, India","volume":"3","author":"Umarani","year":"2014","journal-title":"IJIRSET"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Nephalama, A., and Muzerengi, C. (2016, January 11\u201315). Assessment of the influence of coal mining on groundwater quality: Case of Masisi Village in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Proceedings of the Freiberg\/Germany, Mining Meets Water\u2014Conflicts and Solutions (IMWA 2016), Leipzig, Germany."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"490","article-title":"Nitrate\/nitrate contamination in groundwater of Karachi and its correlation with other physicochemical parameters","volume":"27","author":"Alvi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Pak."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Mukhumo, V. (2014). Investigating Suitability of Groundwater for Domestic Use in Siloam Village. [Honours Dissertation, University of Venda]."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Xu, Y., and Braune, E. (1995, January 26\u201328). Minimum distance as an important concept for borehole source protection in South Africa. Proceedings of the Ground Water 1995 Conference, Midrand, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.3329\/jhpn.v27i5.3642","article-title":"Spatial distribution of diarrhoea and microbial quality of domestic water during an outbreak of diarrhoea in the Tshikuwi Community in Venda, South Africa","volume":"27","author":"Bessong","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Health Popul. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1349","article-title":"Groundwater quality in a South African rural community: A possible threat to public health","volume":"21","author":"Onyango","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pol. J. Environ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8619","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120808619","article-title":"Physico-chemical and microbial analysis of selected borehole water in Mahikeng, South Africa","volume":"12","author":"Palamuleni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/15\/2\/317\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:54:47Z","timestamp":1760194487000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/15\/2\/317"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,12]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph15020317"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph15020317","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,2,12]]}}}