{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T10:11:55Z","timestamp":1775211115068,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]],"date-time":"2018-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1532908800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Education and Research","award":["01SR1002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01SR1002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Previous research has repeatedly shown that gender-based violence affects a considerable proportion of women in any given population. Apart from providing current estimates of the prevalence of sexual violence against women in Germany, we identified specific risk markers applying an advanced statistical method. We analyzed data from a survey of N = 4450 women representative of the German population, conducted by the Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony in 2011. Lifetime prevalence for experiencing sexual violence was 5.4% for women aged 21\u201340 years (five-year prevalence: 2.5%). Non-parametric conditional inference tree (C-Tree) analyses revealed that physical and sexual abuse during childhood as well as being divorced, separated, or widowed was the most informative constellation of risk markers, increasing the five-year prevalence rate of experienced sexual violence victimizations up to 17.0%. Furthermore, knowing about the official penalization of marital rape was related to a lower victimization risk for women without a history of parental violence. Possible explanations for these findings as well as implications for future research are critically discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15081613","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]],"date-time":"2018-07-30T11:55:08Z","timestamp":1532951708000},"page":"1613","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Sexual Violence against Women in Germany: Prevalence and Risk Markers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Deborah F.","family":"Hellmann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Applied Administrative Sciences NRW, 47269 Duisburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Max W.","family":"Kinninger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of International Public Law and Comparative Law, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, 79085 Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"S\u00f6ren","family":"Kliem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Criminological Research Institute of Lower Saxony, 30161 Hannover, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"131","article-title":"Ber\u00fccksichtigung der Belange von Betroffenen sexuellen Missbrauchs im Opferentsch\u00e4digungsgesetz: Gleiches Recht f\u00fcr alle?","volume":"97","author":"Hellmann","year":"2014","journal-title":"MschKrim"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"28","article-title":"Depression, anxiety, and symptom profiles among female and male victims of sexual violence","volume":"6","author":"Choudhary","year":"2012","journal-title":"AJMH"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.00045","article-title":"Sexual assault history and long-term physical health problems: Evidence from clinical and population epidemiology","volume":"8","author":"Golding","year":"1999","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1648","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)62243-6","article-title":"Worldwide prevalence of non-partner sexual violence: A systematic review","volume":"383","author":"Abrahams","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"FRA\u2014European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2014). Violence Against Women: An EU-Wide Survey, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Breiding, M.J., Chen, J., and Black, M.C. (2014). Intimate Partner Violence in the United States 2010."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2156","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302430","article-title":"Violence against women in selected areas of the United States","volume":"105","author":"Montgomery","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tjaden, P.G., and Thoennes, N. (2006). Extent, Nature, and Consequences of Rape Victimization: Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey.","DOI":"10.1037\/e513832006-001"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Aebi, M.F., Akdeniz, G., Barclay, G., Campistol, C., Canepelle, S., Gruszczy\u0144ska, B., and \u00de\u00f3risd\u00f3ttir, R. (2014). European Sourcebook of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gysi, J., and R\u00fcegger, P. (2018). Pr\u00e4valenz sexueller Gewalt in Deutschland, \u00d6sterreich und der Schweiz. Handbuch Sexualisierte Gewalt: Therapie, Pr\u00e4vention und Strafverfolgung, Hogrefe.","DOI":"10.1024\/85658-000"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838014521028","article-title":"Measuring sexual victimization: On what fronts is the jury still out and do we need it to come in?","volume":"15","author":"Krebs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abuse"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/13552600.2017.1318964","article-title":"In the aftermath of disclosing child sexual abuse: Consequences, needs, and wishes","volume":"23","author":"Stiller","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sex. Aggress."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"527","article-title":"Epidemiologie und Strafverfolgung sexueller Gewalt gegen Frauen in Deutschland","volume":"98","author":"Hellmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"MschKrim"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1177\/1477370815571949","article-title":"Complaints of rape and the criminal justice system: Fresh evidence on the attrition problem in England and Wales","volume":"12","author":"Hohl","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1177\/088626092007001009","article-title":"Facts or advocacy statistics: The case of acquaintance rape","volume":"7","author":"Berliner","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260513506052","article-title":"Sexual victimization using latent class analysis: Exploring patterns and psycho-behavioral correlates","volume":"29","author":"French","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1177\/1477370815587769","article-title":"The prevalence of stalking\u2014Current data from a German victim survey","volume":"12","author":"Hellmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1198\/106186006X133933","article-title":"Unbiased recursive partitioning: A conditional inference framework","volume":"15","author":"Hothorn","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comput. Graph. Stat."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1037\/a0016973","article-title":"An introduction to recursive partitioning: Rational application, and characteristics of classification and regression trees, bagging, and random forests","volume":"14","author":"Strobl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1080\/13691058.2014.989265","article-title":"Prevalence and correlates of young people\u2019s sexual aggression perpetration and victimization in 10 European countries: A multilevel analysis","volume":"17","author":"Berger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cult. Health Sex."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stappenbeck, C.A., Norris, J., Wegner, R., Bryan, A.E., Davis, K.C., Zawacki, T., Abdallah, D.A., George, W.H., and Stappenbeck, C.A. (2016). An event-level investigation of factors associated with young women\u2019s experiences of coerced consensual sex. J. Interpers. Violence.","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260516683178"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024648106477","article-title":"Women\u2019s sexual aggression against men: Prevalence and predictors","volume":"49","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sex. Roles"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Hellmann, D.F. (2014). Repr\u00e4sentativbefragung zu Viktimisierungserfahrungen in Deutschland, KFN."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"217","article-title":"Cultural myths and support for rape","volume":"38","author":"Burt","year":"1980","journal-title":"JPSP"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2012.06.002","article-title":"Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming","volume":"17","author":"Grubb","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00276.x","article-title":"A prospective analysis of the relationships among sexual assault experiences an extension of previous findings","volume":"19","author":"Gidycz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260502017006004","article-title":"Childhood risk factors for women\u2019s sexual victimization","volume":"17","author":"Stermac","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579411000174","article-title":"The impact of sexual abuse on female development: Lessons from a multigenerational, longitudinal research study","volume":"23","author":"Trickett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838005275087","article-title":"Sexual revictimization: A review of the empirical literature","volume":"6","author":"Classen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abuse"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(99)00002-2","article-title":"Childhood sexual abuse and revictimization in adolescence","volume":"23","author":"Kolpin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Child. Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260508325489","article-title":"Pathways to adult sexual revictimization: Direct and indirect behavioral risk factors across the lifespan","volume":"24","author":"Fargo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2013.09.020","article-title":"Pathway from child sexual and physical abuse to risky sex among emerging adults: The role of trauma-related intrusions and alcohol problems","volume":"54","author":"Walsh","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Adolesc. Health"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260503258035","article-title":"Revictimization and self-harm in females who experienced childhood sexual abuse: Results from a prospective study","volume":"18","author":"Noll","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.2307\/2673783","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences and sexual risk behaviors in women: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"33","author":"Hillis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Fam. Plan. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2011.10.011","article-title":"Sexual health in women reporting a history of child sexual abuse","volume":"36","author":"Lacelle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child. Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2014.10.004","article-title":"Pathways from childhood abuse to prospective revictimization: Depression, sex to reduce negative affect, and forecasted sexual behavior","volume":"38","author":"Miron","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child. Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2007.12.006","article-title":"Childhood victimization and lifetime revictimization","volume":"32","author":"Widom","year":"2008","journal-title":"Child. Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1521\/psyc.2013.76.3.223","article-title":"A characterization of adult victims of sexual violence: Results from the national epidemiological survey for alcohol and related conditions","volume":"76","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychiatry Interpers. Biol. Processes"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1080\/10926770903539631","article-title":"Childhood emotional abuse predicts late adolescent sexual aggression perpetration and victimization","volume":"19","author":"Zurbriggen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Aggress. Maltreat. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-016-9803-5","article-title":"The effect of family violence on sexual victimization among young women","volume":"31","author":"Symons","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Fam. Violence"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0145-2134(98)00090-8","article-title":"Relationship of childhood sexual, physical, and combined sexual and physical abuse to adult victimization and posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"22","author":"Schaaf","year":"1998","journal-title":"Child. Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0000391","article-title":"(Why) do victims become perpetrators? Intergenerational transmission of parental violence in a representative German sample","volume":"32","author":"Hellmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Hindelang, M., Gottfredson, M., and Garofalo, J. (1978). Victims of Personal Crime: An. Empirical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization, Ballinger."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.2307\/2094589","article-title":"Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach","volume":"44","author":"Cohen","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1080\/07418820902763061","article-title":"What distinguishes single from recurrent sexual victims? The role of lifestyle-routine activities and first-incident characteristics","volume":"27","author":"Fisher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Justice Q."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1177\/0093854812453673","article-title":"Assessing the effect of routine activity theory and self-control on property, personal, and sexual assault victimization","volume":"39","author":"Franklin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crim. Justice Behav."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1080\/07418829500092551","article-title":"Exploring a feminist routine activities approach to explaining sexual assault","volume":"12","author":"Schwartz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Justice Q."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1177\/0022427800037001004","article-title":"Criminal victimization during one\u2019s life course: The effects of previous victimization and patterns of routine activities","volume":"37","author":"Wittebrood","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Res. Crime Delinquency"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2556","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260515579507","article-title":"Age, marital status, and risk of sexual victimization: Similarities and differences across victim\u2013offender relationships","volume":"31","author":"Siddique","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1016\/S0887-6185(99)00030-4","article-title":"Risk factors for rape, physical assault, and posttraumatic stress disorder in women: Examination of differential multivariate relationships","volume":"13","author":"Acierno","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260502017009003","article-title":"Marriage, child abuse, and sexual revictimization","volume":"17","author":"Arata","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2008.05.014","article-title":"Demographic and socioeconomic risk factors of adult violent victimization from an accident and emergency department and forensic medicine perspective: A register-based case-control study","volume":"16","author":"Faergemann","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Forensic Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sexol.2009.01.006","article-title":"Marital rape and relational trauma","volume":"18","author":"Boucher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sexologies"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"284","article-title":"Rape-in-marriage: Law and law reform in England, the United States, and Sweden","volume":"6","author":"Geis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Adel. Law Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2006.10.003","article-title":"A review of marital rape","volume":"12","author":"Martin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durrant, J.E., and Smith, A. (2011). Effects of banning corporal punishment in Europe\u2014A five-nation comparison. Global Pathways to Abolishing Physical Punishment, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203839683"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1177\/0265407508096700","article-title":"Is actual similarity necessary for attraction? A meta-analysis of actual and perceived similarity","volume":"25","author":"Montoya","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Soc. Pers. Relat."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"BMFSFJ\u2014Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth (2004). Health, Well-Being and Personal Safety of Women in Germany."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Wetzels, P., and Pfeiffer, C. (1995). Sexuelle Gewalt gegen Frauen im \u00f6ffentlichen und privaten Raum\u2014Ergebnisse der KFN-Opferbefragung 1992, KFN."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"107","article-title":"The prevalence of sexual violence\u2014Results from a population-based sample","volume":"113","author":"Allroggen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dtsch Arztebl Int."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"481","article-title":"Criminalizing marital rape: A comparison of judicial and legislative approaches","volume":"39","author":"Fus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vanderbilt J. Transnatl. Law"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Wetzels, P. (1997). Gewalterfahrungen in der Kindheit: Sexueller Mi\u00dfbrauch, K\u00f6rperliche Mi\u00dfhandlung und Deren Langfristige Konsequenzen, Nomos."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"75","article-title":"Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales","volume":"41","author":"Straus","year":"1979","journal-title":"JMF"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037886","article-title":"Advancing the measurement of violence: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"4","author":"Grych","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Violence"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037404","article-title":"Construct validity of the Conflict Tactics Scales: A mixed-method investigation of women\u2019s intimate partner violence","volume":"4","author":"Lehrner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Violence"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1007\/s12187-015-9304-8","article-title":"Gaps between conceptualization and measurement of corporal punishment","volume":"9","author":"Winstok","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child. Indic. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1177\/019251396017003001","article-title":"The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2)","volume":"17","author":"Straus","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Fam. Issues"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baier, D., and Pfeiffer, C. (2016). Sexual abuse of children and adolescents: Prevalence and trends. Representative Studies on Victimisation, Nomos.","DOI":"10.5771\/9783845273679"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1","article-title":"MICE: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R","volume":"45","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.4067","article-title":"Multiple imputation using chained equations: Issues and guidance for practice","volume":"30","author":"White","year":"2011","journal-title":"Stat. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norman, R.E., Byambaa, M., De, R., Butchart, A., Scott, J., and Vos, T. (2012). The long-term health consequences of child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001349"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1080\/01926187.2015.1051897","article-title":"Sexual abuse and subsequent risky sexual behaviors: A competency model for treatment of adolescent females","volume":"43","author":"Hughes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Fam. Ther."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.20624","article-title":"Predictors of rape: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents","volume":"24","author":"Elwood","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Trauma. Stress"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2010.07.010","article-title":"Adolescent school-based sexual victimization: Exploring the role of opportunity in a gender-specific multilevel analysis","volume":"38","author":"Tillyer","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Crim. Justice"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838015576391","article-title":"Meta-analysis of the prevalence of unacknowledged rape","volume":"17","author":"Wilson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abuse"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.2008.01472.x","article-title":"Sexual assault victims\u2019 acknowledgement status and revictimization risk","volume":"33","author":"Littleton","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Women Q."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1177\/1477370813505953","article-title":"Preliminary steps towards a more preventative approach to eliminating violence against women in Europe","volume":"11","author":"Gadd","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1080\/1068316X.2013.759007","article-title":"Treating high-risk rapists in a New Zealand intensive prison programme","volume":"19","author":"Wilson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol. Crime Law"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1080\/13552600.2016.1222004","article-title":"Communicating about child sexual abuse with the public: Learning the lessons from public awareness campaigns","volume":"23","author":"Kemshall","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sex. Aggress."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.21489","article-title":"Implementation differences of two staffing models in the German home visiting program \u201cPro Kind\u201d","volume":"40","author":"Brand","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Commun. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260514534775","article-title":"The effect of brief, passive psychoeducation on knowledge and ratings of intimate partner violence in the United States and Argentina","volume":"30","author":"Bridges","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Interpers. Violence"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Laun, S. (2015). Effectiveness of Psychoeducation for Adult Survivors of Sexual and Domestic Violence. [Ph.D. Thesis, Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine]."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/13552600.2017.1383088","article-title":"Preventing child sexual abuse through education: The work of Stop it Now! Wales","volume":"24","author":"Hudson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Sex. Aggress."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1080\/1068316X.2013.860456","article-title":"Female perpetrators of child sexual abuse: Characteristics of the offender and victim","volume":"20","author":"Bourke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Crime Law"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1177\/1477370813479077","article-title":"Juvenile female sex offenders: Offender and offence characteristics","volume":"11","author":"Wijkman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-2311.00132","article-title":"Male prison rape: A search for causation and prevention","volume":"38","author":"Knowles","year":"1999","journal-title":"Howard J. Crim. Justice"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Bradburn, N.M., Sudman, S., and Wansink, B. (2004). Asking Questions, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1080\/10509674.2011.618528","article-title":"Examining disclosure of physical and sexual victimization by method in samples of women involved in the criminal justice system","volume":"51","author":"Kubiak","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Offender Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2013). Global and Regional Estimates of Violence against Women: Prevalence and Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence and Non-Partner Sexual Violence, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801210397741","article-title":"Emerging issues in the measurement of rape victimization","volume":"17","author":"Cook","year":"2011","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1037\/a0037494","article-title":"How to score the sexual experiences survey? A comparison of nine methods","volume":"4","author":"Davis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Violence"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1002\/ab.21553","article-title":"Face the consequences: Learning about victim\u2019s suffering reduces sexual harassment myth acceptance and men\u2019s likelihood to sexually harass","volume":"40","author":"Diehl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aggress. Behav."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Hofstede, G.H. (2001). Culture\u2019s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations across Nations, Sage."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"World Economic Forum (2018, June 08). The Global Gender Gap Report 2013. Available online: http:\/\/www3.weforum.org\/docs\/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1177\/0306624X10371800","article-title":"Criminalizing rape within marriage: Perspectives of Ghanaian university students","volume":"55","author":"Adinkrah","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Offender Ther. Comp. Criminol."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"(2018, June 08). How Laws around the World are Failing to Protect Women and Girls from Sexual Violence. Available online: https:\/\/www.equalitynow.org\/the_global_rape_epidemic_campaign."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/15\/8\/1613\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:15:20Z","timestamp":1760195720000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/15\/8\/1613"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph15081613"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph15081613","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,30]]}}}