{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T17:35:54Z","timestamp":1790012154969,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]],"date-time":"2018-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1533081600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000289","name":"Cancer Research UK","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["C20668 \u2044A6808, C20668\/A10007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["C20668 \u2044A6808, C20668\/A10007"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000289","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000296","name":"British Skin Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["819"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["819"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000296","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000355","name":"Bupa Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TBF-M10-017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TBF-M10-017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000355","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is required for cutaneous vitamin D synthesis, and experimental studies have indicated the levels of sun exposure required to avoid a vitamin D deficient status. Our objectives are to examine the sun exposure behaviours of different United Kingdom sectors and to identify if their exposure is enough to maintain winter circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D above deficiency (&gt;25 nmol\/L). Data are from a series of human studies involving &gt;500 volunteers and performed using the same protocols in Greater Manchester, UK (53.5\u00b0 N) in healthy white Caucasian adolescents and working-age adults (skin type I\u2013IV), healthy South Asian working-age adults (skin type V), and adults with photodermatoses (skin conditions caused or aggravated by cutaneous sun exposure). Long-term monitoring of the spectral ambient UVR of the Manchester metropolitan area facilitates data interpretation. The healthy white populations are exposed to 3% ambient UVR, contrasting with ~1% in South Asians. South Asians and those with photodermatoses wear clothing exposing smaller skin surface area, and South Asians have the lowest oral vitamin D intake of all groups. Sun exposure levels prevent winter vitamin D deficiency in 95% of healthy white adults and 83% of adolescents, while 32% of the photodermatoses group and &gt;90% of the healthy South Asians were deficient. The latter require increased oral vitamin D, whilst their sun exposure provides a tangible contribution and might convey other health benefits.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15081624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]],"date-time":"2018-08-01T11:22:34Z","timestamp":1533122554000},"page":"1624","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Is Sunlight Exposure Enough to Avoid Wintertime Vitamin D Deficiency in United Kingdom Population Groups?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1826-3653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Kift","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9107-6654","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lesley E.","family":"Rhodes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Musculoskeletal and Dermatological Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, and Dermatology Centre, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester M6 8HD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8602-7279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark D.","family":"Farrar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Musculoskeletal and Dermatological Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, and Dermatology Centre, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester M6 8HD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2173-0902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ann R.","family":"Webb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689S","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.6.1689S","article-title":"Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D","volume":"80","author":"DeLuca","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"International Agency for Research on Cancer (2008). Vitamin D and Cancer, World Health Organisation. IARC Working Group Reports."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.013","article-title":"Epidemiology of disease risks in relation to vitamin D insufficiency","volume":"92","author":"Grant","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2018, June 21). SACN Vitamin D and Health, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/sacn-vitamin-d-and-health-report."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2006.02.004","article-title":"Who, what, where and when\u2014Influences on cutaneous vitamin D synthesis","volume":"92","author":"Webb","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nu.08.070188.002111","article-title":"The role of sunlight in the cutaneous production of vitamin D3","volume":"Volume 8","author":"Olson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Annual Review of Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2018, July 04). Travel Trends: 2016, Available online: https:\/\/www.ons. gov.uk\/releases\/traveltrends2016."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Public Health England (PHE) (2018, June 07). Ultraviolet Radiation and Vitamin D: The Effects on Health, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/ultraviolet-radiation-and-vitamin-d-the-effectson-health."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Institute of Medicine (2011). 2011 Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority (2017). Dietary Reference Values for Vitamin D. EFSA J., 14, e04547.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2016.4547"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1039\/c5pp00008d","article-title":"A modeling approach to determine how much UV radiation is available across the UK and Ireland for health risk and benefit studies","volume":"14","author":"Kazantzidis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webb, A.R., Kazantzidis, A., Kift, R.C., Farrar, M.D., Wilkinson, J., and Rhodes, L.E. (2018). Meeting Vitamin D Requirements in White Caucasians at UK Latitudes: Providing a Choice. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10040497"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2018, February 20). NICE Guideline [NG34] Sunlight Exposure: Risks and Benefits. Published Date: February 2016. Available online: https:\/\/www.nice.org.uk\/guidance\/ng34."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2009.417","article-title":"Recommended summer sunlight exposure levels can produce sufficient (\u226520 ng mL\u22121) but not the proposed optimal (\u226532 ng mL\u22121) 25(OH)D levels at UK latitudes","volume":"130","author":"Rhodes","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2010.09975.x","article-title":"The role of sunlight exposure in determining the vitamin D status of the UK white Caucasian adult population","volume":"163","author":"Webb","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.12518","article-title":"Lifestyle factors including less cutaneous sun exposure contribute to starkly lower vitamin D levels in U.K. South Asians compared with the white population","volume":"169","author":"Kift","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.13325","article-title":"Sunlight exposure behaviour and vitamin D status in photosensitive patients: Longitudinal comparative study with healthy individuals at UK latitude","volume":"171","author":"Rhodes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.019976","article-title":"Recommended summer sunlight exposure levels fail to produce sufficient vitamin D status in UK adults of South Asian origin","volume":"94","author":"Farrar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3105","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-1559","article-title":"Sun exposure behavior, seasonal vitamin D deficiency and relationship to bone health in adolescents","volume":"101","author":"Farrar","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1039\/c7pp00178a","article-title":"UV Index Monitoring in Europe","volume":"16","author":"Schmalwieser","year":"2017","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/261169a0","article-title":"Possible dosimeter for ultraviolet radiation","volume":"261","author":"Davis","year":"1976","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0781.1997.tb00110.x","article-title":"The standard erythema dose: A new photobiological concept","volume":"13","author":"Diffey","year":"1997","journal-title":"Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2006.11.006","article-title":"Observations from the UK Supra-Regional Assay Service laboratory for the measurement of vitamin D metabolites","volume":"103","author":"Berry","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.2011.00898.x","article-title":"The Vitamin D Debate: Translating Controlled Experiments into Reality for Human Sun Exposure Times","volume":"87","author":"Webb","year":"2011","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrasco-Hernandez, R., Smedley, A.R.D., and Webb, A.R. (2015). Fast calculations of the spectral diffuse-to-global ratios for approximating spectral irradiance at the street canyon level. Theor. Appl. Climatol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-015-1473-3"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2010.03.006","article-title":"Photoprotection and vitamin D status","volume":"101","author":"Springbett","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2010.144","article-title":"A sunscreen\u2019s labelled sun protection factor (SPF) may overestimate protection at temperate latitudes: A human in vivo study","volume":"130","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webb, A.R., Kazantzidis, A., Kift, R.C., Farrar, M.D., Wilkinson, J., and Rhodes, L.E. (2018). Colour Counts: Sunlight and Skin Type as Drivers of Vitamin D Deficiency at UK Latitudes. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10040457"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.052639","article-title":"Efficacy of a dose-range of simulated sunlight exposures in raising vitamin D status in South Asian adults: Implications for targeted guidance on sun exposure","volume":"97","author":"Farrar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.14800","article-title":"Target the message: A qualitative study exploring knowledge and cultural attitudes to sunlight and vitamin D in Greater Manchester, UK","volume":"175","author":"Webb","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1039\/c6pp00337k","article-title":"Serum endocannabinoids and N-acyl ethanolamines and the influence of simulated solar UVR exposure in humans in vivo","volume":"16","author":"Felton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2014.27","article-title":"UVA irradiation of human skin vasodilates arterial vasculature and lowers blood pressure independently of nitric oxide synthase","volume":"134","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/15\/8\/1624\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:15:51Z","timestamp":1760195751000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/15\/8\/1624"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph15081624"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph15081624","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]]}}}