{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T10:22:19Z","timestamp":1783938139280,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,9]],"date-time":"2018-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1536451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006545","name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U54 MD007593-07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54 MD007593-07"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006545","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We reported previously that reduction in beta-arrestin 1 (\u03b2-AR 1) protein levels in peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBMC) significantly correlated with the severity of depressive symptoms in reproductive women. In this pilot study, we used \u03b2-AR 1 protein levels in PBMC as a marker for developing depressive symptoms and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAM-D) scores to assess potential mood-related side effects of oral contraceptive use for routine birth control among women. We evaluated 29 women in this study. We enrolled the participants in three groups: Estrogen-progestin combination-oral contraceptives (COC, n = 10), progestin-only contraceptives (POC, n = 12), and non-hormonal or no contraceptives (NC, n = 7). We determined the \u03b2-AR 1 protein levels in PBMCs by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We found that women in the POC group had significantly higher HAM-D scores compared to those in the COC (p &lt; 0.0004) and NC (p &lt; 0.004). The levels of \u03b2-AR 1 protein were significantly attenuated in women in the POC group compared to women in the NC group (p = 0.03). Our findings suggest that the use of POC is a potential risk factor for developing depressive symptoms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15091966","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,10]],"date-time":"2018-09-10T10:28:57Z","timestamp":1536575337000},"page":"1966","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Do Progestin-Only Contraceptives Contribute to the Risk of Developing Depression as Implied by Beta-Arrestin 1 Levels in Leukocytes? A Pilot Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Keisha","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience &amp; Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. Todd Jr. Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanket","family":"Nayyar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience &amp; Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. Todd Jr. Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tanu","family":"Rana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience &amp; Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. Todd Jr. Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anthony E.","family":"Archibong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience &amp; Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. Todd Jr. Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimberly R.","family":"Looney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience &amp; Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. Todd Jr. Blvd, Nashville, TN 37208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tultul","family":"Nayyar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience &amp; Pharmacology, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D. B. 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