{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:36:44Z","timestamp":1760240204879,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,8]],"date-time":"2019-04-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1554681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Since its re-emergence in 1993, the spatial patterns of malaria outbreaks in South Korea have drastically changed. It is well known that complicated interactions between humans, nature, and socio-economic factors lead to a spatial dependency of vivax malaria occurrences. This study investigates the spatial factors determining malaria occurrences in order to understand and control malaria risks in Korea. A multilevel model is applied to simultaneously analyze the variables in different spatial scales, and eigenvector spatial filtering is used to explain the spatial autocorrelation in the malaria occurrence data. The results show that housing costs, average age, rice paddy field ratio, and distance from the demilitarized zone (DMZ) are significant on the level-1 spatial scale; health budget per capita and military base area ratio are significant on the level-2 spatial scale. The results show that the spatially filtered multilevel model provides better analysis results in handling spatial issues.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16071250","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,8]],"date-time":"2019-04-08T11:54:52Z","timestamp":1554724492000},"page":"1250","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Spatially Filtered Multilevel Analysis on Spatial Determinants for Malaria Occurrence in Korea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Sehyeong","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seoul 02841, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Youngho","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography Education, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seoul 02841, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (1979). Synopsis of the world malaria situation. Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec., 56, 145\u2013149."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Warrell, D.A., and Gilles, H.M. (2002). Essential Malariology, CRC Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-112408-085419","article-title":"Landscape Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Diseases","volume":"55","author":"Reisen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.1999.37.3.129","article-title":"Re-emerging Plasmodium vivax malaria in the Republic of Korea","volume":"37","author":"Chai","year":"1999","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2008.40.4.191","article-title":"Status of Vivax Malaria after Re-emergence in South Korea","volume":"40","author":"Yeom","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2000.38.3.119","article-title":"Unstable vivax malaria in Korea","volume":"38","author":"Ree","year":"2000","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ministry of Health and Welfare & Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2016). Malaria Administrative Guideline, Human Culture Arirang."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bousema, T., Griffin, J.T., Sauerwein, R.W., Smith, D.L., Churcher, T.S., Takken, W., Ghani, A., Drakeley, C., and Gosling, R. (2012). Hitting Hotspots: Spatial Targeting of Malaria for Control and Elimination. PLoS Med., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001165"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyh274","article-title":"Multilevel modelling and malaria: A new method for an old disease","volume":"33","author":"Mauny","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.80.103","article-title":"Individual and Household Level Factors Associated with Malaria Incidence in a Highland Region of Ethiopia: A Multilevel Analysis","volume":"80","author":"Peterson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-10-161","article-title":"Population, behavioural and environmental drivers of malaria prevalence in the Democratic Republic of Congo","volume":"10","author":"Messina","year":"2011","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-12-273","article-title":"Malaria risk factors in Butajira area, south-central Ethiopia: A multilevel analysis","volume":"12","author":"Woyessa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-350","article-title":"Multilevel and geo-statistical modeling of malaria risk in children of Burkina Faso","volume":"7","author":"Samadoulougou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-2875-6-37","article-title":"Large-scale malaria survey in Cambodia: Novel insights on species distribution and risk factors","volume":"6","author":"Incardona","year":"2007","journal-title":"Malar. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, Z., Wang, D., Hwang, J., Bennett, A., Sturrock, H.J.W., Ma, A., Huang, J., Xia, Z., Feng, X., and Wang, J. (2015). Spatial-Temporal Variation and Primary Ecological Drivers of Anopheles sinensis Human Biting Rates in Malaria Epidemic-Prone Regions of China. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0116932"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrp.2012.11.003","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Plasmodium vivax Malaria in Korea Estimated with a Hierarchical Generalized Linear Model","volume":"3","author":"Noh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Osong Public Health Res. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Snijders, T.A., and Bosker, R. (1999). Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Applied Multilevel Analysis, Sage."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7041302","article-title":"Spatial modeling in environmental and public health research","volume":"7","author":"Jerrett","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Corrado, L., and Fingleton, B. (2011). Multilevel Modelling with Spatial Effects, Scottish Institute for Research in Economics (SIRE). No. 2011-13."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9876.00153","article-title":"Multilevel Modelling of the Geographical Distributions of Diseases","volume":"48","author":"Langford","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. C Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-4-18","article-title":"A comparison of six analytical disease mapping techniques as applied to West Nile Virus in the coterminous United States","volume":"4","author":"Griffith","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-13-6","article-title":"A spatially filtered multilevel model to account for spatial dependency: Application to self-rated health status in South Korea","volume":"13","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(95)90471-9","article-title":"Socio-economic risk factors for malaria in a peri-urban area of The Gambia","volume":"89","author":"Koram","year":"1995","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2002.66.13","article-title":"Outbreak of vivax malaria in areas adjacent to the demilitarized zone, South Korea, 1998","volume":"66","author":"Lee","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-4-17","article-title":"Identification and characterization of larval and adult anopheline mosquito habitats in the Republic of Korea: Potential use of remotely sensed data to estimate mosquito distributions","volume":"4","author":"Sithiprasasna","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2005.43.3.75","article-title":"Studies on Anopheles sinensis, the vector species of vivax malaria in Korea","volume":"43","author":"Ree","year":"2005","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.5124\/jkma.2017.60.6.468","article-title":"Current status and outlook of mosquito-borne diseases in Korea","volume":"60","author":"Yeom","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Im, J.H., Kwon, H.Y., Baek, J., Park, S.W., Durey, A., Lee, K.H., Chung, M.-H., and Lee, J.-S. (2017). Severe Plasmodium vivax infection in Korea. Malar. J., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-017-1684-4"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, K.S., Yoo, D.-H., Ju, Y.R., Lee, W.G., Roh, J.Y., Kim, H.-C., Klein, T.A., and Shin, E.-H. (2016). Distribution of malaria vectors and incidence of vivax malaria at Korean army installations near the demilitarized zone, Republic of Korea. Malar. J., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12936-016-1301-y"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.7205\/MILMED-D-01-6208","article-title":"Malaria in the Republic of Korea, 1993\u20132007. Variables Related to Re-emergence and Persistence of Plasmodium vivax Among Korean Populations and U.S. Forces in Korea","volume":"174","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.159","article-title":"Vivax malaria: A continuing health threat to the Republic of Korea","volume":"69","author":"Park","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1973.10489112","article-title":"A generalization of the Poisson distribution","volume":"15","author":"Consul","year":"1973","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1093\/biostatistics\/kxl008","article-title":"Disease mapping and spatial regression with count data","volume":"8","author":"Wakefield","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biostatistics"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Finch, W.H., Bolin, J.E., and Kelley, K. (2014). Multilevel Modeling Using R, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Raudenbush, S.W., and Bryk, A.S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods, Sage."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Bivand, R.S., Pebesma, E.J., Gomez-Rubio, V., and Pebesma, E.J. (2008). Applied Spatial Data Analysis with R, Springer."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Casman, E.A., and Dowlatabadi, H. (2002). The Contextual Determinants of Malaria, Resources for the Future."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/16\/7\/1250\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:43:41Z","timestamp":1760186621000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/16\/7\/1250"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,8]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph16071250"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph16071250","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,8]]}}}