{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T20:59:40Z","timestamp":1780088380336,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,28]],"date-time":"2019-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572220800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006545","name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P50MD010428"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P50MD010428"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006545","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000066","name":"National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P30 ES000002 and R01 ES024332"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30 ES000002 and R01 ES024332"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000066","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000139","name":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["RD83615601 and RD83587201"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RD83615601 and RD83587201"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000139","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Few studies examined the impact of maternal socioeconomic status and of its combined effects with environmental exposures on birthweight. Our goal was to examine the impact of maternal homelessness (mothers ever homeless or who lived in shelters during pregnancy) and participation in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) during pregnancy in conjunction with air pollution exposure on birthweight in the Boston-based Children\u2019s HealthWatch cohort from 2007 through 2015 (n = 3366). Birthweight was obtained from electronic health records. Information on maternal homelessness and WIC participation during pregnancy were provided via a questionnaire. Prenatal fine particulate matter (PM2.5) exposures, estimated at the subject\u2019s residential address, were calculated for each trimester. We fit linear regression models adjusting for maternal and child characteristics, seasonality, and block-group-level median household income and examined the interactions between PM2.5 and each covariate. Prenatal maternal homelessness was associated with reduced birthweight (\u221255.7 g, 95% CI: \u221297.8 g, \u221213.7 g), while participating in WIC was marginally associated with increased birthweight (36.1 g, 95% CI: \u22127.3 g, 79.4 g). Only average PM2.5 during the second trimester was marginally associated with reduced birthweight (\u22128.5 g, 95% CI: \u221219.3, 2.3) for a 1 \u00b5g\/m3 increase in PM2.5. The association of PM2.5 during the second trimester with reduced birthweight was stronger among non-Hispanic Black mothers and trended toward significance among immigrants and single mothers. Our study emphasizes the independent and synergistic effects of social and environmental stressors on birthweight, particularly the potentially protective effect of participating in WIC for vulnerable populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16214154","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,10,28]],"date-time":"2019-10-28T11:26:13Z","timestamp":1572261973000},"page":"4154","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Effects of Maternal Homelessness, Supplemental Nutrition Programs, and Prenatal PM2.5 on Birthweight"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Jongeun","family":"Rhee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M. Patricia","family":"Fabian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Ettinger de Cuba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sharon","family":"Coleman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biostatistics and Epidemiology Data Analytics Center, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Megan","family":"Sandel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin James","family":"Lane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4453-0401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maayan","family":"Yitshak Sade","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaime E.","family":"Hart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women\u2019s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joel","family":"Schwartz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women\u2019s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Itai","family":"Kloog","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography and Environmental Development, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francine","family":"Laden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Channing Division of Network Medicine, Brigham and Women\u2019s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1116-4006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan I.","family":"Levy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonella","family":"Zanobetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, T.H. 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