{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T17:13:16Z","timestamp":1782234796381,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,5]],"date-time":"2019-11-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572912000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chinese air pollution is obviously increasing, and the government makes efforts to strengthen air pollution treatment. Although adverse health effects gradually emerge, research determining individual vulnerability is limited. This study estimated the relationship between air pollution and obesity. Individual information of 13,414 respondents from 125 cities is used in the analysis. This study employs ordinary least squares (OLS) and multinomial logit model (m-logit) to estimate the impact of air pollution on obesity. We choose different air pollution and Body Mass Index (BMI) indicators for estimation. Empirical results show Air Quality Index (AQI) is significantly positively associated with the BMI score. As AQI adds one unit, the BMI score increases 0.031 (SE = 0.002; p &lt; 0.001). The influence coefficients of particle size smaller than 2.5 \u03bcm (PM2.5), particle size smaller than 10 \u03bcm (PM10), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) to the BMI score are 0.034 (SE = 0.002; p &lt; 0.001), 0.023 (SE = 0.001; p &lt; 0.001), 0.52 (SE = 0.095; p &lt; 0.001), 0.045 (SE = 0.004; p &lt; 0.001), 0.021 (SE = 0.002; p &lt; 0.001), 0.008 (SE = 0.003; p = 0.015), respectively. Generally, air pollution has an adverse effect on body weight. CO is the most influential pollutant, and female, middle-aged, and low-education populations are more severely affected. The results confirm that the adverse health effects of air pollution should be considered when making the air pollution policies. Findings also provide justification for health interventions, especially for people with obesity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16214296","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,7]],"date-time":"2019-11-07T02:48:31Z","timestamp":1573094911000},"page":"4296","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Air Pollution as a Cause of Obesity: Micro-Level Evidence from Chinese Cities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8468-2077","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhiming","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Donlinks School of Economics and Management, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qianhao","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donlinks School of Economics and Management, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Central China Economic and Social Development Research, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China"},{"name":"School of Economics and Management, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2618-5088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunquan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Medical College, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430065, China"},{"name":"Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430065, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"767","article-title":"Effects of sulfur oxides and respirable particles on human health. Methodology and demography of populations in study","volume":"120","author":"Ferris","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11280-3","article-title":"Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: A cohort study","volume":"360","author":"Hoek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.4103\/1735-1995.189646","article-title":"Effects of air pollution on human health and practical measures for prevention in Iran","volume":"21","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Res. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.8034165","article-title":"Air pollution and human health: A review and reanalysis","volume":"34","author":"Thibodeau","year":"1980","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(02)11274-8","article-title":"Air Pollution and Health","volume":"360","author":"Brunekreef","year":"2002","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13103","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-019-04482-x","article-title":"Bibliometric analysis of global research on air pollution and human health: 1998\u20132017","volume":"26","author":"Dhital","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpcardiol.2015.01.003","article-title":"Air pollution and cardiovascular disease","volume":"40","author":"Franklin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Probl. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jaganathan, S., Jaacks, L.M., Magsumbol, M., Wang, C., Liu, S., Li, N., Mao, S., Hou, Y., Lu, Y., and Xiang, H. (2019). Association of Long-Term Exposure to Fine Particulate Matter and Cardio-Metabolic Diseases in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16142541"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.06.033","article-title":"Associations between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"252","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46002","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP4381","article-title":"Association between Outdoor Air Pollution and Childhood Leukemia: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis","volume":"127","author":"Filippini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2019.113036","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and lipid profile: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"254","author":"Gaio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2018.12.006","article-title":"Air pollution and Parkinson\u2019s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis up to 2018","volume":"222","author":"Kasdagli","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"904","article-title":"Accuracy of the WHO\u2019s body mass index cut-off points to measure gender- and age-specific obesity in middle-aged adults living in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil","volume":"6","author":"Materko","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Public Health Res."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2019, September 30). Ten Threats to Global Health in 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/emergencies\/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"34","article-title":"Prevalence of obesity in developed countries: Current status and perspectives","volume":"17","author":"Aranceta","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Hosp."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1038\/s41366-018-0089-y","article-title":"Impact of ambient air pollution on obesity: A systematic review","volume":"42","author":"An","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-8977-8-20","article-title":"Ambient particulate air pollution induces oxidative stress and alterations of mitochondria and gene expression in brown and white adipose tissues","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Part. Fibre Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12188","article-title":"Effects of air pollution exposure on glucose metabolism in Los Angeles minority children","volume":"13","author":"Alderete","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Quality and Health, World Health Organization. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1007\/s10900-008-9126-4","article-title":"Association Between Media Alerts of Air Quality Index and Change of Outdoor Activity Among Adult Asthma in Six States, BRFSS, 2005","volume":"34","author":"Wen","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, J.D., Voss, J.D., and Knight, B. (2014). The Association of Ambient Air Pollution and Physical Inactivity in the United States. PLoS ONE.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0090143"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2015.07.029","article-title":"Sex-specific difference of the association between ambient air pollution and the prevalence of obesity in Chinese adults from a high pollution range area: 33 Communities Chinese Health Study","volume":"117","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1177\/1757913917726567","article-title":"Impact of ambient air pollution on physical activity among adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"138","author":"An","year":"2018","journal-title":"Perspect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20198","article-title":"Ambient air pollution and the prevalence of obesity in Chinese children: The seven northeastern cities study","volume":"22","author":"Dong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"21","article-title":"Cities in China with higher levels of air pollution had a higher percentage of overweight and obesity in children","volume":"99","author":"Excretion","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12016","article-title":"Does near-roadway air pollution contribute to childhood obesity?","volume":"11","author":"Mcconnell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2018.01.057","article-title":"Air pollution during pregnancy and childhood obesity risk: Potential protective effect of diet","volume":"24","author":"Michalaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. Espen"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12210","article-title":"Air pollution, weight loss and metabolic benefits of bariatric surgery: A potential model for study of metabolic effects of environmental exposures","volume":"13","author":"Ghosh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Obes."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201500142","article-title":"Chronic exposure to air pollution particles increases the risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome: Findings from a natural experiment in Beijing","volume":"30","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.02110s4557","article-title":"Asthma in the United States: Burden and current theories","volume":"110","author":"Redd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dys203","article-title":"Cohort Profile: The China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS)","volume":"43","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s13033-018-0212-4","article-title":"Does chronic disease influence susceptibility to the effects of air pollution on depressive symptoms in China?","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)00648-0","article-title":"Comprehensive treatment of hypertension middle-aged and elderly people: Cross-sectional survey data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS)","volume":"386","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1995.03520300035033","article-title":"Weight, Weight Change, and Coronary Heart Disease in Women. Risk within the \u2018normal\u2019 weight range","volume":"273","author":"Willett","year":"1995","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taghizadeh, N., Boezen, H.M., Schouten, J.P., Schr\u00f6der, C.P., Elisabeth de Vries, E.G., and Vonk, J.M. (2015). BMI and Lifetime Changes in BMI and Cancer Mortality Risk. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125261"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45637","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45637","article-title":"Obesity and depressive symptoms among Chinese people aged 45 and over","volume":"7","author":"Qian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the Peoples Republic of China (2019, September 30). Technical Regulation on Ambient Air Quality Index (on Trial), Available online: http:\/\/kjs.mee.gov.cn\/hjbhbz\/bzwb\/jcffbz\/201203\/t20120302_224166.shtml."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10851","article-title":"Season, sex, age, and education as modifiers of the effects of outdoor air pollution on daily mortality in Shanghai, China: The Public Health and Air Pollution in Asia (PAPA) Study","volume":"116","author":"Kan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jes.7500530","article-title":"Association between PM2.5 and all-cause and specific-cause mortality in 27 US communities","volume":"17","author":"Franklin","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/146.4.888","article-title":"A community-based study of the epidemiology ofasthma. Incidence rates, 1964\u20131983","volume":"146","author":"Yunginger","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.10.003","article-title":"Traffic-related air pollution and childhood obesity in an Italian birth cohort","volume":"160","author":"Fioravanti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1007\/s13679-013-0086-3","article-title":"Findings from the Quebec Family Study on the Etiology of Obesity: Genetics and Environmental Highlights","volume":"3","author":"Chaput","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Obes. Rep."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/16\/21\/4296\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:32:02Z","timestamp":1760189522000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/16\/21\/4296"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,5]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph16214296"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph16214296","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,5]]}}}