{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,20]],"date-time":"2026-04-20T18:58:13Z","timestamp":1776711493384,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,23]],"date-time":"2020-04-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1587600000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smoking is a risk factor for adult-onset Crohn\u2019s disease (CD). Although passive smoking from family members is a major concern, especially in pediatric CD, the number of existing epidemiological studies is limited. This multicenter case\u2013control study aimed to assess the effects of familial smoking on pediatric CD. We examined 22 pediatric CD cases and 135 controls. The subjects\u2019 mothers were given a self-administered questionnaire about family smoking before disease onset in the CD group or the corresponding period in the control group. Univariable logistic regression model was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), whereas dose\u2013response relationship analyses were performed for more in-depth evaluations. Univariable analyses indicated that passive smoking from the mother (OR, 2.09; 95% CI, 0.61\u20137.10) was not a significant, but a candidate risk factor for developing pediatric CD. In contrast, the dose\u2013response relationship analyses revealed that passive smoking from the mother (OR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.04\u20131.31) was significantly associated with pediatric CD. Therefore, passive smoking from the mother may be predominantly associated with the development of pediatric CD. Further follow-up studies comprising environmental measurements of passive smoking exposure doses and genetic factors interaction analysis are necessary.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17082926","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,23]],"date-time":"2020-04-23T10:46:22Z","timestamp":1587638782000},"page":"2926","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Association between Passive Smoking from the Mother and Pediatric Crohn\u2019s Disease: A Japanese Multicenter Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4324-7882","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Koji","family":"Uchiyama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of International Environmental Health, Center for International Cooperation, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6865-5159","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yasuo","family":"Haruyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hiromi","family":"Shiraishi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health and Nutrition, University of Human Arts and Sciences, Saitama 339-8539, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kiyohiko","family":"Katahira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Institute of Clinical and Social Pharmacy, Saitama 341-0035, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daiki","family":"Abukawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Miyagi Children\u2019s Hospital, Miyagi 989-3126, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2409-7359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takashi","family":"Ishige","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Gunma 371-8511, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hitoshi","family":"Tajiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Osaka General Medical Center, Osaka 558-8558, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2272-3755","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keiichi","family":"Uchida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastrointestinal and Pediatric Surgery, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie 514-8507, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kan","family":"Uchiyama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University Kashiwa Hospital, Chiba 277-8567, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Masakazu","family":"Washio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Mary\u2019s College, Fukuoka 830-8558, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Erika","family":"Kobashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Musashino University, School of Human Sciences, Tokyo 202-8585, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Atsuko","family":"Maekawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Preventive Medicine, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya 466-8550, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazushi","family":"Okamoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Nursing and Health, Aichi Prefectural University, Aichi 480-1198, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8896-6501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Toshimi","family":"Sairenchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuka","family":"Imamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuji","family":"Ohhira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of International Environmental Health, Center for International Cooperation, Dokkyo Medical University, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0867-3704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Akira","family":"Hata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Chiba University School of Medicine, Chiba 260-8670, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gen","family":"Kobashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Dokkyo Medical University School of Medicine, Tochigi 321-0293, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-5085(03)00385-8","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease in a Swedish twin cohort: A long-term follow-up of concordance and clinical characteristics","volume":"124","author":"Halfvarson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2486","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2005.00224.x","article-title":"Disease concordance, zygosity, and NOD2\/CARD15 status: Follow-up of a population-based cohort of Danish twins with inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"100","author":"Jess","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2014.05.008","article-title":"Family history of inflammatory bowel disease among patients with ulcerative colitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Childers","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.4292\/wjgpt.v7.i4.556","article-title":"Family history and disease outcomes in patients with Crohn\u2019s disease: A comparison between China and the United States","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastrointest. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e80","DOI":"10.1097\/MPG.0000000000001547","article-title":"Temporal trend of pediatric inflammatory bowel disease: Analysis of national registry data 2004 to 2013 in Japan","volume":"65","author":"Ishige","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crohns.2014.02.002","article-title":"Smoking in inflammatory bowel disease: Impact on disease course and insights into the aetiology of its effect","volume":"8","author":"Parkes","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Crohn\u2019s Colitis"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.4065\/81.11.1462","article-title":"Smoking and inflammatory bowel disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"81","author":"Mahid","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.20070","article-title":"Active and passive smoking in childhood is related to the development of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"13","author":"Mahid","year":"2007","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1080\/08035250600573151","article-title":"Fetal and perinatal risk factors for inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"95","author":"Aspberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v17.i6.743","article-title":"Perinatal and early life risk factors for inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"17","author":"Roberts","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2017.05.010","article-title":"Genetic factors interact with tobacco smoke to modify risk for inflammatory bowel disease in humans and mice","volume":"153","author":"Yadav","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Washio, M., and Kobashi, G. (2019). Epidemiology of Crohn\u2019s disease in Japan. Epidemiological Studies of Specified Rare and Intractable Disease, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-1096-6"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2382","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2008.01999.x","article-title":"Passive smoking and inflammatory bowel disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"103","author":"Jones","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"356","article-title":"Passive smoking is associated with an increased risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease in children","volume":"88","author":"Lashner","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, A.Y., Stevens, B.W., Wilson, R.G., Russell, C.N., Cohen, M.A., Sturgeon, H.C., Thornton, A., Giallourakis, C., Khalili, H., and Nguyen, D.D. (2014). Early life environment and natural history of inflammatory bowel diseases. BMC Gastroenterol., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12876-014-0216-8"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basson, A., Swart, R., Jordaan, E., Mazinu, M., and Watermeyer, G. (2014). The association between childhood environmental exposures and the subsequent development of Crohn\u2019s disease in the Western Cape, South Africa. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0115492"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kondo, K., Ohfuji, S., Watanabe, K., Yamagami, H., Fukushima, W., Ito, K., Suzuki, Y., and Hirota, Y. (2019). Japanese Case-Control Study Group for Crohn\u2019s Disease. The association between environmental factors and the development of Crohn\u2019s disease with focusing on passive smoking: A multicenter case\u2013control study in Japan. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0216429"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"95","article-title":"Epidemiological survey on chronic inflammatory bowel disease developed during childhood in Japan, and a case-control study on nutrition during infancy","volume":"42","author":"Urashima","year":"1999","journal-title":"Yonago Acta Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uchiyama, K., Miyashita, M., Tanishima, Y., Maeda, S., Sato, H., Yoshikawa, J., Watanabe, S., Shibata, M., Ohhira, S., and Kobashi, G. (2018). Use of iodine-131 to tellurium-132 ratios for assessing the relationships between human inhaled radioactivity and environmental monitoring after the accident in Fukushima. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15030483"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Nordberg, G.F., Fowler, B.A., and Nordberg, M. (2015). General considerations of dose-effect and dose-response relationships. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, Academic Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthews, D.E., and Farewell, V.T. (2015). Using and Understanding Medical Statistics, Karger. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1159\/978-3-318-05459-0"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1038\/bmt.2012.244","article-title":"Investigation of the freely available easy-to-use software \u2018EZR\u2019 for medical statistics","volume":"48","author":"Kanda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v045.i07","article-title":"Amelia II: A program for missing data","volume":"45","author":"Honaker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Takahashi, M., and Watanabe, M. (2017). Missing Data Analysis: Single Imputation and Multiple Imputation in R., Kyoritsu Shuppan. (In Japanese and R Codes)."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"mice: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R","volume":"45","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Stat. Softw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1007\/s00535-010-0223-7","article-title":"Inflammatory bowel disease in children: Epidemiological analysis of the nationwide IBD registry in Japan","volume":"45","author":"Ishige","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2005.11.017","article-title":"Epidemiological study on passive smoking among Japanese infants and smoking behavior of their respective parents: A nationwide cross-sectional survey","volume":"42","author":"Kaneita","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prev. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saito, J., Shibanuma, A., Yasuoka, J., Kondo, N., Takagi, D., and Jimba, M. (2018). Education and indoor smoking among parents who smoke: The mediating role of perceived social norms of smoking. BMC Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-5082-9"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1867","DOI":"10.1007\/s13524-014-0334-5","article-title":"When does time matter? Maternal employment, children\u2019s time with parents, and child development","volume":"51","author":"Hsin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Demography"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/8\/2926\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:09:08Z","timestamp":1760364548000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/8\/2926"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,23]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph17082926"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17082926","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,23]]}}}