{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T00:56:30Z","timestamp":1784076990022,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]],"date-time":"2020-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1592179200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PJT166086"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PJT166086"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Changing global markets have generated a dramatic shift in tobacco consumption from high-income countries (HICs) to low- and middle-income countries (LMICs); by 2030, more than 80% of the disease burden from tobacco use will fall on LMICs. Propelling this shift, opponents of tobacco control have successfully asserted that tobacco is essential to the economic livelihoods of smallholder tobacco farmers and the economy of tobacco-growing countries. This nexus of economic, agricultural and public health policymaking is one of the greatest challenges facing tobacco control efforts, especially in LMICs. To date, there is a lack of comparative, individual level evidence about the actual livelihoods of tobacco-growing farmers and the political economic context driving tobacco production. This comparative evidence is critically important to identify similarities and differences across contexts and to provide local evidence to inform policies and institutional engagement. Our proposed four-year project will examine the economic situation of smallholder farmers in two major tobacco-growing LMICs\u2014Mozambique and Zimbabwe\u2014and the political economy shaping farmers\u2019 livelihoods and tobacco control efforts. We will collect and analyze the existing data and policy literature on the political economy of tobacco in these two countries. We will also implement household-level economic surveys of nationally representative samples of farmers. The surveys will be complimented with focus group discussions with farmers across the major tobacco-growing regions. Finally, we will interview key informants in these countries in order to illuminate the policy context in which tobacco production is perpetuated. The team will develop country-level reports and policy briefs that will inform two sets of dissemination workshops in each country with relevant stakeholders. We will also conduct workshops to present our findings to the survey and focus group participants, and other members of these tobacco-growing communities, so they can directly benefit from the research to which they are contributing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124262","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]],"date-time":"2020-06-15T12:16:57Z","timestamp":1592223417000},"page":"4262","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The Political Economy of Tobacco in Mozambique and Zimbabwe: A Triangulation Mixed Methods Protocol"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9273-2027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raphael","family":"Lencucha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, 3630 Promenade Sir William Osler, Montreal, QC H3G 1Y5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Drope","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Economic and Health Policy Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0615-740X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ronald","family":"Labonte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1G 5Z3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benedito","family":"Cunguara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Av Vladmir Lenine #2081, Flat 1.4, Maputo P.O. Box 55, Mozambique"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arne","family":"Ruckert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1G 5Z3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zvikie","family":"Mlambo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Training and Research Support Center, Harare P.O. Box CY 2720, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1258-5109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artwell","family":"Kadungure","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Training and Research Support Center, Harare P.O. Box CY 2720, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stella","family":"Bialous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Social and Behavioral Sciences Department, School of Nursing, UCSF, San Franscisco, CA 94143, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nhamo","family":"Nhamo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Research, Innovation and Technological Solutions, Zimbabwe Open University, Harare P.O. Box MP 1119, Zimbabwe"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(96)07493-4","article-title":"Mortality by cause for eight regions of the world: Global Burden of Disease Study","volume":"349","author":"Murray","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Drope, J., and Schluger, N.W. (2018). The Tobacco Atlas, American Cancer Society. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mathers, C.D., and Loncar, D. (2006). Projections of Global Mortality and Burden of Disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.0030442"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s10552-012-9914-0","article-title":"The vector of the tobacco epidemic: Tobacco industry practices in low and middle-income countries","volume":"23","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)60312-9","article-title":"Exposing and addressing tobacco industry conduct in low-income and middle-income countries","volume":"385","author":"Gilmore","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2016.07.026","article-title":"Rhetoric and the law, or the law of rhetoric: How countries oppose novel tobacco control measures at the World Trade Organization","volume":"164","author":"Lencucha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2009.033613","article-title":"FCTC guidelines on tobacco industry foreign investment would strengthen controls on tobacco supply and close loopholes in the tobacco treaty","volume":"19","author":"Lo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2015-052250","article-title":"Investment incentives and the implementation of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: Evidence from Zambia","volume":"25","author":"Lencucha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Drope, J., Li, Q., Araujo, E., Harimurti, P., Sahadewo, G., Nargis, N., Durazo, J., Witoelar, F., and Sikoki, B. (2017). The Economics of Tobacco Farming in Indonesia, World Bank Group."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1057\/jphp.2012.36","article-title":"Tobacco control and trade policy: Proactive strategies for integrating policy norms","volume":"34","author":"Drope","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Public Health Policy"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1215\/03616878-2682621","article-title":"Evolving Norms at the Intersection of Health and Trade","volume":"39","author":"Drope","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Health Politics Policy Law"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1093\/heapro\/dat038","article-title":"Plain packaging: An opportunity for improved international policy coherence?","volume":"30","author":"Lencucha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Health Promot. Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czw094","article-title":"Navigating institutional complexity in the health sector: Lessons from tobacco control in Kenya","volume":"31","author":"Lencucha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czu085","article-title":"Whole-of-government approaches to NCDs: The case of the Philippines Interagency Committee\u2014Tobacco","volume":"30","author":"Lencucha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-018-0328-y","article-title":"The institutional context of tobacco production in Zambia","volume":"14","author":"Lencucha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czy005","article-title":"Global tobacco control and economic norms: An analysis of normative commitments in Kenya, Malawi and Zambia","volume":"33","author":"Lencucha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Magati, P., Li, Q., Drope, J., Lencucha, R., and Labonte, R. (2016). The Economics of Tobacco Farming in Kenya, Institute of Legislative Affairs, American Cancer Society."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Goma, F., Drope, J., Zulu, R., Li, Q., Chelwa, G., Labonte, R., and Banda, J. (2016). The Economics of Tobacco Farming in Zambia, American Cancer Society."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2016-053022","article-title":"Costs, revenues and profits: An economic analysis of smallholder tobacco farmer livelihoods in Malawi","volume":"26","author":"Makoka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magati, P., Lencucha, R., Li, Q., Drope, J., Labonte, R., Appau, A.B., Makoka, D., Goma, F., and Zulu, R. (2018). Costs, contracts and the narrative of prosperity: An economic analysis of smallholder tobacco farming livelihoods in Kenya. Tob. Control.","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2017-054213"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.5.3.192","article-title":"Tobacco farmers and diversification: Opportunities and barriers","volume":"5","author":"Altman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"294","article-title":"Assessment of livelihood assets and strategies among tobacco and non tobacco growing households in south Nyanza region, Kenya","volume":"4","author":"Kibwage","year":"2009","journal-title":"Afr. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lecours, N. (2014). The Harsh Realities of Tobacco Farming: A Review of Socioeconomic, Health and Environmental Impacts. Tobacco Control and Tobacco Farming: Separating Myth from Reality, Anthem Press (IDRC)."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2005.014993","article-title":"Eliminating child labour in Malawi: A British American Tobacco corporate responsibility project to sidestep tobacco labour exploitation","volume":"15","author":"Muggli","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Kibwage, J.K., Netondo, G.W., Odondo, A.J., Momanyi, G.M., Awadh, A.H., and Magati, P.O. (2014). Diversification of Household Livelihood Strategies for Tobacco Small-holder Farmers: A Case Study of Introducing Bamboo in South Nyanza Region, Kenya. Final Technical Report for the Tobacco-to-Bamboo Research Project in Kenya, International Development Research Center (IDRC)."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magati, P.O., Kibwage, J.K., Omondi, S.G., Ruigu, G., and Omwansa, W. (2012). A Cost-benefit Analysis of Substituting Bamboo for Tobacco: A Case Study of Smallholder Tobacco Farmers in South Nyanza, Kenya. Sci. J. Agric. Res. Manag., 2012.","DOI":"10.7237\/sjarm\/204"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2015.01.005","article-title":"Small Farmers in High-Value Chains: Binding or Relaxing Constraints to Inclusive Growth?","volume":"72","author":"Briones","year":"2015","journal-title":"World Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Espino, R.R., Evangelista, D., and Dorotheo, E.U. (2009). Survey of the Tobacco Growing Areas in the Philippines, Southeast Asia Tobacco Control Research."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Kweyuh, P. (1998). Does tobacco growing pay? The case of Kenya. The Economics of Tobacco Control, United of Cape Town."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Magati, P., Lencucha, R., Labonte, R., Makoka, D., and Drope, J. (2019). The Economic Geography of Kenyan Tobacco Farmers\u2019 Livelihood Decisions. Nicotine Tob. Res.","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntz011"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2009.030601","article-title":"Smoking in Ghana: A review of tobacco industry activity","volume":"18","author":"Lewis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Owusu-Dabo, E., McNeill, A., Lewis, S., Gilmore, A., and Britton, J. (2010). Status of implementation of Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) in Ghana: A qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-10-1"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntx037","article-title":"Avoiding \u201cA Massive Spin-Off Effect in West Africa and Beyond\u201d: The Tobacco Industry Stymies Tobacco Control in Nigeria","volume":"19","author":"Egbe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, J., De Souza, L., Smith, J., and Lee, K. (2020). \u201cAll Weather Friends\u201d: How China Transformed Zimbabwe\u2019s Tobacco Sector. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030723"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith, J., DeSouza, L., and Fang, J. (2020). Eastern Africa\u2019s tobacco value chain: Links with China. Third World Q., 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1080\/01436597.2020.1736544"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/nts111","article-title":"Tobacco Consumption in Mozambique: Use of Distinct Types of Tobacco Across Urban and Rural Settings","volume":"15","author":"Damasceno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"WHO (2017). WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2017: Monitoring Tobacco Use and Prevention Policies, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12992-015-0139-3","article-title":"Tobacco is \u201cour industry and we must support it\u201d: Exploring the potential implications of Zimbabwe\u2019s accession to the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control","volume":"12","author":"Lown","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"FAO (2018). Tobacco Production Quantity (tons): All Countries, Food and Agriculture Organization."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/joac.12210","article-title":"Tobacco, contract farming, and agrarian change in Zimbabwe","volume":"18","author":"Scoones","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Agrar. Chang."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"MoA (2012). Zimbabwe Agriculture Investment Plan (ZAIP) 2013-2017, Government of Zimbabwe, Ministry of Agriculture."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Chasokela, E., and Brown, C. (2020, June 14). Zimbabwe: 170,000 Register to Grow Tobacco. Available online: https:\/\/www.herald.co.zw\/170-000-register-to-grow-tobacco\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2018, August 01). 2017\/18 Registered Tobacco Farmers Increase by 199 Percent|The Chronicle. Available online: http:\/\/www.chronicle.co.zw\/201718-registered-tobacco-farmers-increase-by-199-percent\/."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"ILO (2014). Tobacco Sector Employment: Statistical Update, International Labour Organization."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Dias, P. (2013). Analysis of Incentives and Disincentives for Tobacco in Mozambique, FAO."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1080\/01436597.2016.1180956","article-title":"Class dynamics in contract farming: The case of tobacco production in Mozambique","volume":"37","year":"2016","journal-title":"Third World Q."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2013). MoA National Agriculture Investment Plan 2014\u20132018, Government of the Republic of Mozamibique, Ministry of Agriculture."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Creswell, J.W., Plano Clark, V.L., Gutmann, M.L., and Hanson, W.E. (2003). Advanced mixed methods research designs. Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research, SAGE Publications."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Makoka, D., Drope, J., Appau, A., and Lencucha, R. (2016). Farm-Level Economics of Tobacco Production in Malawi, Centre for Agricultural Research and Development, American Cancer Society."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Milner, H.V. (1997). Interests, Institutions, and Information: Domestic Politics and International Relations, Princeton University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780691214498"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006871114987","article-title":"Institutional analysis and the role of ideas in political economy","volume":"27","author":"Campbell","year":"1998","journal-title":"Theory Soc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.28.110601.141111","article-title":"Ideas, Politics, and Public Policy","volume":"28","author":"Campbell","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-2451.00179","article-title":"Transnational advocacy networks in international and regional politics","volume":"51","author":"Keck","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. Soc. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2008.146217","article-title":"Tobacco Companies\u2019 Use of Developing Countries\u2019 Economic Reliance on Tobacco to Lobby Against Global Tobacco Control: The Case of Malawi","volume":"99","author":"Otanez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2008.09.062","article-title":"Tobacco industry attempts to counter the World Bank report curbing the epidemic and obstruct the WHO framework convention on tobacco control","volume":"67","author":"Mamudu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.9.2.206","article-title":"Globalisation of tobacco industry influence and new global responses","volume":"9","author":"Yach","year":"2000","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1","article-title":"Institutions and the implementation of tobacco control in Brazil","volume":"33","author":"Lencucha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cad. Sa\u00fade P\u00fablica"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1200","DOI":"10.1093\/heapol\/czw052","article-title":"Why do policies change? Institutions, interests, ideas and networks in three cases of policy reform","volume":"31","author":"Shearer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Health Policy Plan."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"887","DOI":"10.1162\/002081898550789","article-title":"International Norm Dynamics and Political Change","volume":"52","author":"Finnemore","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. Organ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.15171\/ijhpm.2019.56","article-title":"How Neoliberalism Is Shaping the Supply of Unhealthy Commodities and What This Means for NCD Prevention","volume":"8","author":"Lencucha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Policy Manag."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahoney, J., and Rueschemeyer, D. (2003). Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511803963"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/1364557032000119616","article-title":"Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework","volume":"8","author":"Arksey","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Miles, M.B., and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, SAGE."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1080\/13645570701401305","article-title":"Sampling Knowledge: The Hermeneutics of Snowball Sampling in Qualitative Research","volume":"11","author":"Noy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1177\/004912418101000205","article-title":"Snowball Sampling: Problems and Techniques of Chain Referral Sampling","volume":"10","author":"Biernacki","year":"1981","journal-title":"Sociol. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1177\/1525822X05279903","article-title":"How Many Interviews Are Enough? An Experiment with Data Saturation and Variability","volume":"18","author":"Guest","year":"2006","journal-title":"Field Methods"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing Grounded Theory, SAGE. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732315617444","article-title":"Sample Size in Qualitative Interview Studies: Guided by Information Power","volume":"26","author":"Malterud","year":"2016","journal-title":"Qual. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"(2018, August 02). TRB|Kutsaga Research Station. Available online: http:\/\/www.kutsaga.co.zw\/research\/breeding.html."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Corbin, J., and Strauss, A. (2014). Basics of Qualitative Research, SAGE. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"El-Osta, H., and Ahearn, M. (1996). Estimating the Opportunity Cost of Unpaid Farm Labor for US Farm Operators, Economic Research Service, US Department of Agriculture."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"(2016). UNSIAP Estimating the Costs of Paid and Unpaid Labour, United Nations Statistical Institute for Asia and the Pacific."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"European Commission (2018). Agriculture and Farm Income, European Commission, Agriculture and Rural Development."},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"1063","article-title":"Analysis of a Random Forests Model","volume":"13","author":"Biau","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"2015","article-title":"Consistency of Random Forests and Other Averaging Classifiers","volume":"9","author":"Biau","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1037\/a0016973","article-title":"An introduction to recursive partitioning: Rationale, application, and characteristics of classification and regression trees, bagging, and random forests","volume":"14","author":"Strobl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"WHO (2010). Brief Profile on Gender and Tobacco in South-East Asia Region, World Health Organization SEARO."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/12\/4262\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:39:09Z","timestamp":1760175549000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/12\/4262"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph17124262"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17124262","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,15]]}}}