{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T02:09:50Z","timestamp":1771034990095,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,19]],"date-time":"2020-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1592524800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Key project of Philosophy and Social Science Research of the Ministry of Education","award":["No. 15JZD029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 15JZD029"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No. 71874033"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 71874033"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Recently, the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has already spread rapidly as a global pandemic, just like the H1N1 swine influenza in 2009. Evidences have indicated that the efficiency of emergency response was considered crucial to curb the spread of the emerging infectious disease. However, studies of COVID-19 on this topic are relatively few. Methods: A qualitative comparative study was conducted to compare the timeline of emergency responses to H1N1 (2009) and COVID-19, by using a set of six key time nodes selected from international literature. Besides, we also explored the spread speed and peak time of COVID-19 and H1N1 swine influenza by comparing the confirmed cases in the same time interval. Results: The government\u2019s entire emergency responses to the epidemic, H1N1 swine influenza (2009) completed in 28 days, and COVID-19 (2019) completed in 46 days. Emergency responses speed for H1N1 was 18 days faster. As for the epidemic spread speed, the peak time of H1N1 came about 4 weeks later than that of COVID-19, and the H1N1 curve in America was flatter than COVID-19 in China within the first four months after the disease emerged. Conclusions: The speed of the emergency responses to H1N1 was faster than COVID-19, which might be an important influential factor for slowing down the arrival of the peak time at the beginning of the epidemic. Although COVID-19 in China is coming to an end, the government should improve the public health emergency system, in order to control the spread of the epidemic and lessen the adverse social effects in possible future outbreaks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124409","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,19]],"date-time":"2020-06-19T10:43:58Z","timestamp":1592563438000},"page":"4409","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Characteristics of and Public Health Emergency Responses to COVID-19 and H1N1 Outbreaks: A Case-Comparison Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8822-6017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qian","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tiantian","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"},{"name":"Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huanhuan","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ge","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ruiming","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ping","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"},{"name":"Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment of the Ministry of Health, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-020-00758-2","article-title":"The coronavirus pandemic in five powerful charts","volume":"579","author":"Callaway","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wuhan Municipal Health Commission (2019, December 31). Report of Clustering Pneumonia of Unknown Etiology in Wuhan City, Available online: http:\/\/wjw.wuhan.gov.cn\/front\/web\/showDetail\/20191231089892019."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2002032","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China","volume":"382","author":"Guan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.01.009","article-title":"The continuing 2019-nCoV epidemic threat of novel coronaviruses to global health\u2014The latest 2019 novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China","volume":"91","author":"HuiDS","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, March 11). WHO Director-General\u2019s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19\u201411 March 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/dg\/speeches\/detail\/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-20202020."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"DX Docor (2020, April 05). COVID-19 Global Pandemic Real-Time Report. Available online: https:\/\/ncov.dxy.cn\/ncovh5\/view\/en_pneumonia?from=dxy&source=&link=&share=2020."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2009, June 11). World Now at the Start of 2009 Influenza Pandemic. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/news\/statements\/2009\/h1n1_pandemic_phase6_20090611\/en\/2009."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"CDC (2009). Outbreak of Swine-Origin Influenza A (H1N1) Virus Infection -Mexico, March\u2013April 2009. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 58, 467\u2013470."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"CDC (2009). Swine influenza A (H1N1) infection in two children\u2014Southern California, March\u2013April 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 58, 400\u2013402."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1337","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1245200","article-title":"The hidden geometry of complex, network-driven contagion phenomena","volume":"342","author":"Brockmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1038\/4641112a","article-title":"Portrait of a year-old pandemic","volume":"464","author":"Butler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciq022","article-title":"Epidemiology of 2009 Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) Deaths in the United States, April-July 2009","volume":"52","author":"Fowlkes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2018.08.007","article-title":"Transmissibility and severity of influenza virus by subtype","volume":"65","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1007\/s12098-009-0170-6","article-title":"Swine origin influenza (swine flu)","volume":"76","author":"Sebastian","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Epidemiology Working Group for Ncip Epidemic Response (2020). [The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19) in China]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi, 41, 145\u2013151."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1111\/twec.12296","article-title":"Assessing Regional Risks from Pandemic Influenza: A Scenario Analysis","volume":"39","author":"Verikios","year":"2016","journal-title":"World Econ."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"CDC (2020, April 05). The 2009 H1N1 Pandemic: Summary Highlights, April 2009\u2013April 2010, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/h1n1flu\/cdcresponse.htm2010."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Hubei Provincial Government (2020, January 22). Circular of Hubei Provincial People\u2019s Government on Strengthening Pneumonia Prevention and Control of New Coronavirus Infection, Available online: http:\/\/www.hubei.gov.cn\/xxgk\/gsgg\/202001\/t20200122_2013895.shtml2020."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Wuhan Municipal Health Commission (2020, January 11). Experts Interpret the Latest Notice of Viral Pneumonia of Unknown Causes, Available online: http:\/\/wjw.wuhan.gov.cn\/front\/web\/showDetail\/20200111090362020."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2020, April 05). National Health Commission of the People\u2019s Republic of China, Available online: http:\/\/www.nhc.gov.cn\/."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"CCTV (2020, January 09). Novel Coronavirus! Preliminary Determination of the \u201cCulprit\u201d of Unexplained Pneumonia in Wuhan. Available online: http:\/\/m.news.cctv.com\/2020\/01\/09\/ARTI9Vp9Lra4Tvltz3r7es96200109.shtml2020."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"YiMagazine (2020, February 09). Wuhan Epidemic Core Timeline. Available online: https:\/\/j-x.gitee.io\/home\/nCovTimeline2020."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"CDC (2020, April 05). H1N1 Flu (Swine Flu): Past Situation Updates, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/h1n1flu\/updates\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"CDC (2009). Update: Swine influenza A (H1N1) infections\u2014California and Texas, April 2009. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 58, 435\u2013437."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, April 05). Influenza A (H1N1)\u2014Update 23. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/csr\/don\/2009_05_09\/en\/2009."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"(2010). Nature, After the pandemic. Nature, 466, 903. Available online: https:\/\/www.nature.com\/articles\/466903b#citeas.","DOI":"10.1038\/466903b"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020, April 05). H1N1 in Post-Pandemic Period. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/news\/statements\/2010\/h1n1_vpc_20100810\/en\/2010."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1360\/SSV-2020-0044","article-title":"An interim review of lessons from the Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak in China","volume":"50","author":"Ding","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Sin. Vitae"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3527(08)00403-X","article-title":"Swine influenza viruses a North American perspective","volume":"72","author":"Vincent","year":"2008","journal-title":"Adv. Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2009.01.003","article-title":"Characterization of an influenza A virus isolated from pigs during an outbreak of respiratory disease in swine and people during a county fair in the United States","volume":"137","author":"Vincent","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1409.080305","article-title":"Human case of swine influenza A (H1N1) triple reassortant virus infection, Wisconsin","volume":"14","author":"Newman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30567-5","article-title":"How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic?","volume":"395","author":"Anderson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/12\/4409\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:40:52Z","timestamp":1760175652000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/12\/4409"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,19]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph17124409"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17124409","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,19]]}}}