{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T05:43:59Z","timestamp":1782971039636,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":172,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,28]],"date-time":"2020-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1595894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chromium is a potentially toxic metal occurring in water and groundwater as a result of natural and anthropogenic sources. Microbial interaction with mafic and ultramafic rocks together with geogenic processes release Cr (VI) in natural environment by chromite oxidation. Moreover, Cr (VI) pollution is largely related to several Cr (VI) industrial applications in the field of energy production, manufacturing of metals and chemicals, and subsequent waste and wastewater management. Chromium discharge in European Union (EU) waters is subjected to nationwide recommendations, which vary depending on the type of industry and receiving water body. Once in water, chromium mainly occurs in two oxidation states Cr (III) and Cr (VI) and related ion forms depending on pH values, redox potential, and presence of natural reducing agents. Public concerns with chromium are primarily related to hexavalent compounds owing to their toxic effects on humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms. Risks for human health range from skin irritation to DNA damages and cancer development, depending on dose, exposure level, and duration. Remediation strategies commonly used for Cr (VI) removal include physico-chemical and biological methods. This work critically presents their advantages and disadvantages, suggesting a site-specific and accurate evaluation for choosing the best available recovering technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17155438","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,29]],"date-time":"2020-07-29T07:31:45Z","timestamp":1596007905000},"page":"5438","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":539,"title":["Chromium Pollution in European Water, Sources, Health Risk, and Remediation Strategies: An Overview"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8182-0454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marina","family":"Tumolo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research, Institute-Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valeria","family":"Ancona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research, Institute-Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5667-3114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenico","family":"De Paola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biosciences and Bioresources, Italian National Research Council (IBBR-CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Losacco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research, Institute-Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3673-3903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Campanale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research, Institute-Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8006-6998","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmine","family":"Massarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research, Institute-Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1373-7055","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vito Felice","family":"Uricchio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water Research, Institute-Italian National Research Council (IRSA-CNR), 70132 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.2166\/aqua.2008.080","article-title":"Chromium removal from water: A review","volume":"57","author":"Sharma","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Water Supply Res. Technol.-Aqua"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-009-3417-1","article-title":"Chromium speciation in solid matrices and regulation: A review","volume":"397","author":"Unceta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-9697(89)90189-7","article-title":"Environmental chemistry of chromium","volume":"86","author":"Rai","year":"1989","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9332","DOI":"10.1021\/es2021704","article-title":"Advanced Oxidation Process Based on the Cr(III)\/Cr(VI) Redox Cycle","volume":"45","author":"Bokare","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2017.09.032","article-title":"Chemical vs bio-mediated reduction of hexavalent chromium. An in-vitro study for soil and deep waters remediation","volume":"312","author":"Ginepro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seppur.2011.01.020","article-title":"Adsorption behaviour of Cr(VI) onto macro and micro-vesicular volcanic rocks from water","volume":"78","author":"Alemayehu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sep. Purif. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1159\/000366378","article-title":"Involvement of Calcium, Reactive Oxygen Species, and ATP in Hexavalent Chromium-Induced Damage in Red Blood Cells","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Wilbur, S., Abadin, H., Fay, M., Yu, D., Tencza, B., Ingerman, L., Klotzbach, J., and James, S. (2012). Health Effects."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wise, J.T.F., Wang, L., Xu, J., Zhang, Z., and Shi, X. (2019). Oxidative stress of Cr(III) and carcinogenesis. The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium (III), Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-64121-2.00010-6"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10590501.2015.1096883","article-title":"Toxic and genotoxic effects of hexavalent chromium in environment and its bioremediation strategies","volume":"34","author":"Mishra","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health Part C"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-58639-7","article-title":"Remediation of hexavalent chromium contaminated water through zero-valent iron nanoparticles and effects on tomato plant growth performance","volume":"10","author":"Brasili","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1080\/15226514.2016.1256372","article-title":"Chromium(VI) sorption efficiency of acid-activated banana peel over organo-montmorillonite in aqueous solutions","volume":"19","author":"Ashraf","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Phytoremed."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.03.128","article-title":"Origin of hexavalent chromium in groundwater: The example of Sarigkiol Basin, Northern Greece","volume":"593\u2013594","author":"Kazakis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2019.03.004","article-title":"Arsenic, copper, and chromium from treated wood products in the U.S. disposal sector","volume":"87","author":"Jones","year":"2019","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/ARRB\/2017\/33462","article-title":"Effects of Chromium on Human Body","volume":"13","author":"Achmad","year":"2017","journal-title":"ARRB"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A402","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.108-a402","article-title":"Reflections on hexavalent chromium: Health hazards of an industrial heavyweight","volume":"108","author":"Pellerin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.109159","article-title":"Effect of incineration temperature on chromium speciation in real chromium-rich tannery sludge under air atmosphere","volume":"183","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.126876","article-title":"Regulations for chromium emissions to the aquatic environment in Europe and elsewhere","volume":"254","author":"Vaiopoulou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Munn, S.J., Allanou, R., Aschberger, K., Berthault, F., Cosgrove, O., Luotamo, M., Pakalin, S., Paya-Perez, A., Pellegrini, G., and Schwarz-Schulz, B. (2005). Chromium Trioxide, Sodium Chromate, Sodium Dichromate, Ammonium Dichromate, Potassium Dichromate, EUR 21508 EN, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. European Union Risk Assessment Report."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123730","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2019.123730","article-title":"Porous polyacrylonitrile\/graphene oxide nanofibers designed for high efficient adsorption of chromium ions (VI) in aqueous solution","volume":"392","author":"Feng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2013.01.048","article-title":"Chemical and microbial remediation of hexavalent chromium from contaminated soil and mining\/metallurgical solid waste: A review","volume":"250\u2013251","author":"Dhal","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ancona, V., Campanale, C., Tumolo, M., De Paola, D., Ardito, C., Volpe, A., and Uricchio, V.F. (2020). Enhancement of Chromium (VI) Reduction in Microcosms Amended with Lactate or Yeast Extract: A Laboratory-Scale Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17030704"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2014.07.014","article-title":"Bacterial chromate reductase, a potential enzyme for bioremediation of hexavalent chromium: A review","volume":"146","author":"Thatoi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1966","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01966","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Bioaugmentation for the Bioremediation of Contaminated Soils","volume":"8","author":"Garbisu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2018.12.041","article-title":"Microbial reduction fate of chromium (Cr) in aqueous solution by mixed bacterial consortium","volume":"170","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.2174\/1874070701610010379","article-title":"The Geomicrobiology of Chromium (VI) Pollution: Microbial Diversity and its Bioremediation Potential","volume":"10","author":"Joshi","year":"2016","journal-title":"TOBIOTJ"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koleli, N., and Demir, A. (2016). Chromite. Environmental Materials and Waste, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-803837-6.00011-1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2059","DOI":"10.1039\/C4GC02360A","article-title":"Reclamation of reactive metal oxides from complex minerals using alkali roasting and leaching\u2014An improved approach to process engineering","volume":"17","author":"Makanyire","year":"2015","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haldar, S.K. (2017). Introduction. Platinum-Nickel-Chromium Deposits, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-802041-8.00001-8"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"215","article-title":"Formation of Chromium-Containing Molten Salt Phase during Roasting of Chromite Ore with Sodium and Potassium Hydroxides","volume":"16","author":"Parirenyatwa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Manuf. Sci. Prod."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Mondal, S.K., and Griffin, W.L. (2018). Chapter 3\u2014Metallic Ore Deposits Associated With Mafic to Ultramafic Igneous Rocks. Processes and Ore Deposits of Ultramafic-Mafic Magmas through Space and Time, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1007\/s40726-016-0044-2","article-title":"Occurrence, Origin and Transformation Processes of Geogenic Chromium in Soils and Sediments","volume":"2","author":"Chrysochoou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pollut. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferronato, N., and Torretta, V. (2019). Waste Mismanagement in Developing Countries: A Review of Global Issues. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16061060"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1139\/er-2016-0012","article-title":"Chromium behavior in aquatic environments: A review","volume":"24","author":"Gorny","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Huang, D., Wu, J., Zhu, Q., and Zhu, H. (2018). Horizontal and Vertical Distributions of Chromium in a Chromate Production District of South Central China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15040571"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1012401332610","article-title":"Chemical Immobilisation of Chromium Wastes using Modified Smectite Clays (E-clays)","volume":"23","author":"Mcleod","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gattullo, C.E., Allegretta, I., Porfido, C., Rascio, I., Spagnuolo, M., and Terzano, R. (2020). Assessing chromium pollution and natural stabilization processes in agricultural soils by bulk and micro X-ray analyses. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08857-3"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vogel, C., Hoffmann, M.C., Kr\u00fcger, O., Murzin, V., Caliebe, W., and Adam, C. (2020). Chromium (VI) in phosphorus fertilizers determined with the diffusive gradients in thin-films (DGT) technique. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-08761-w"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.135135","article-title":"Occurrence and distribution of hexavalent chromium in groundwater from North Carolina, USA","volume":"711","author":"Coyte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5307","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-015-5771-1","article-title":"Large scale groundwater flow and hexavalent chromium transport modeling under current and future climatic conditions: The case of Asopos River Basin","volume":"23","author":"Dokou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Rajapaksha, A.U., Vithanage, M., Ok, Y.S., and Oze, C. (2020, June 03). Cr(VI) Formation Related to Cr(III)-Muscovite and Birnessite Interactions in Ultramafic Environments. Available online: https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/es4015025."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1021\/tx200251t","article-title":"Chromium in Drinking Water: Sources, Metabolism, and Cancer Risks","volume":"24","author":"Zhitkovich","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Res. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Ben\u00edtez, S.V.B. (2018). Understanding of (Bio)geochemical Processes which Control Chromium Release, Speciation and Isotopic Fractionation in Ultramafic Environments Impacted by Mining Activitites. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e0 Degli Studi]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"European Environment Agency (2020, May 19). European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register. Available online: https:\/\/prtr.eea.europa.eu\/#\/pollutantreleases."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11528","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-8827-6","article-title":"Environmental exposure to arsenic and chromium in an industrial area","volume":"24","author":"Vimercati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.06.093","article-title":"Synchronous detoxification and reduction treatment of tannery sludge using Cr (VI) resistant bacterial strains","volume":"687","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katsoyiannis, I.A., Xanthopoulou, M., and Zouboulis, A.I. (2020). Cr(VI) Femoval from Ground Waters by Ferrous Iron Redox-Assisted Coagulation in a Continuous Treatment Unit Comprising a Plug Flow Pipe Reactor and Downflow Sand Filtration. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10030802"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oruko Ongon\u2019g, R., Edokpayi, J.N., Msagati, T.A.M., Tavengwa, N.T., Ijoma, G.N., and Odiyo, J.O. (2020). The Potential Health Risk Associated with Edible Vegetables Grown on Cr(VI) Polluted Soils. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17020470"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.04.046","article-title":"Intracellular versus extracellular accumulation of Hexavalent chromium reduction products by Geobacter sulfurreducens PCA","volume":"240","author":"Gong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2012.07.011","article-title":"Environmental hazard assessment of coal fly ashes using leaching and ecotoxicity tests","volume":"84","author":"Tsiridis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1390","DOI":"10.1080\/10934529.2013.781886","article-title":"Hexavalent chromium release from lignite fly ash and related ecotoxic effects","volume":"48","author":"Darakas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health A Toxic Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2013.12.024","article-title":"Assessment of mobility and bioavailability of contaminants in MSW incineration ash with aquatic and terrestrial bioassays","volume":"34","author":"Nehrenheim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joseph, A., Snellings, R., Van den Heede, P., Matthys, S., and De Belie, N. (2018). The Use of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Ash in Various Building Materials: A Belgian Point of View. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11010141"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"European Commission (2000). Establishing a Framework for Community Action in the Field of Water Policy (L327\/1-72). European Council Directive, 2000\/60\/EC (Water Framework Directive), European Commission."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389991259164","article-title":"A Critical Assessment of Chromium in the Environment","volume":"29","author":"Kimbrough","year":"1999","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiec.2017.06.040","article-title":"Recent bioreduction of hexavalent chromium in wastewater treatment: A review","volume":"55","author":"Pradhan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2017.08.040","article-title":"Hexavalent chromium reduction potential of Cellulosimicrobium sp. isolated from common effluent treatment plant of tannery industries","volume":"147","author":"Bharagava","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2014.09.050","article-title":"Origin and concentration profile of chromium in a Greek aquifer","volume":"281","author":"Dermatas","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Tista, M., Gager, M., Gaisbauer, S., Ullrich, B., and European Environment Agency (2019). European Union Emission Inventory Report 1990\u20132017 under the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/s13201-019-0940-x","article-title":"Influence of pH on Cr(VI) reduction by organic reducing substances from sugarcane molasses","volume":"9","author":"Yan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Water Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26903","DOI":"10.1039\/C6RA28253A","article-title":"Non-biological reduction of Cr(VI) by reacting with humic acids composted from cattle manure","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shanker, A.K. (2019). Chromium: Environmental Pollution, Health Effects and Mode of Action. Encyclopedia of Environmental Health, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-409548-9.11575-1"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2012.09.017","article-title":"Influence of solution chemistry on Cr(VI) reduction and complexation onto date-pits\/tea-waste biomaterials","volume":"114","author":"Albadarin","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.919217","article-title":"Chromium cycling in soils and water: Links, gaps, and methods","volume":"92","author":"Bartlett","year":"1991","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acosta-Rodr\u00edguez, I., C\u00e1rdenas-Gonz\u00e1lez, J.F., de Guadalupe Moctezuma-Z\u00e1rate, M., and Mart\u00ednez-Ju\u00e1rez, V.M. (2013). Removal of Hexavalent Chromium from Solutions and Contaminated Sites by Different Natural Biomasses. Appl. Bioremed.-Act. Passiv. Approaches.","DOI":"10.5772\/56152"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"James, B.R. (2007). Chromium. Encyclopedia of Water Science, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/NOE0849396274.ch27"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.05.050","article-title":"Biosorption and biotransformation of hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]: A comprehensive review","volume":"207","author":"Jobby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalke, B. (2016). Metallomics: Analytical Techniques and Speciation Methods, Wiley-VCH.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527694907"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Brandhuber, P., Frey, M., McGuire, M.J., Chao, P., and Seidel, C. (2004). Chapter 2 Literature review. Low-Level Hexavalent Chromium Treatment Options: Bench-Scale Evaluation, American Water Works Association Research Foundation."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lichtfouse, E. (2019). Sustainable Agriculture Reviews, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-33281-5"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Bridgewater, L.L., Baird, R.B., Eaton, A.D., Rice, E.W., American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation (2017). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wasterwater, American Public Health Association. [23rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5505","DOI":"10.1021\/es048835n","article-title":"Natural Occurrence of Hexavalent Chromium in the Aromas Red Sands Aquifer, California","volume":"39","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1039\/c2ja10290k","article-title":"On-line preconcentration using chelating and ion-exchange minicolumns for the speciation of chromium(iii) and chromium(vi) and their quantitative determination in natural waters by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry","volume":"27","author":"Guerrero","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Anal. At. Spectrom."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2827","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2004.04.024","article-title":"Determination of total chromium in environmental water samples","volume":"38","author":"Parks","year":"2004","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3510","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0498664","article-title":"Determination of Total Chromium in Seawater by Isotope Dilution Sector Field ICPMS Using GC Sample Introduction","volume":"76","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1551-8833.1988.tb03012.x","article-title":"Determining Ultratrace Metal Concentrations by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectrometry","volume":"80","author":"Malinski","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Work. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3548","DOI":"10.1021\/ac030407x","article-title":"\u2018Skip\u2019 Application of Speciated Isotope Dilution Mass Spectrometry To Evaluate Extraction Methods for Determining Mercury Speciation in Soils and Sediments","volume":"76","author":"Rahman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Wendelken, S., Smith, G., Munch, D., Zaffiro, A., and Zimmerman, M. (2011). Method 218.7: Determination of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water by Ion Chromatography with Post-Column Derivatization and UV\u2013Visible Spectroscopic Detection, Version 1.0 November 2011."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"McNeill, L., McLean, J., Edwards, M., and Perks, J. (2013). Trace Level Hexavalent Chromium. Occurrence and Analysis, Water Research Foundation. Project No. 4404."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Martin, T., Brockhoff, C., Creed, J., and EMMC Methods Work Group (1994). Method 200.7 Determination of Metals and Trace Elements in Water and Wastes by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/77.4.1004","article-title":"Determination of Trace Elements in Water by Inductively Coupled Plasma\u2013Mass Spectrometry: Collaborative Study","volume":"77","author":"Longbottom","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Creed, J., Martin, T., and O\u2019Dell, J. (1994). Determination of Trace Elements by Stabilized Temperature Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2020, July 27). USEPA SW-846 Test Method 7199: Determination of Hexavalent Chromium in Drinking Water, Groundwater, and Industrial Wastewater Effluents by Ion Chromatography, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/hw-sw846\/sw-846-test-method-7199-determination-hexavalent-chromium-drinking-water-groundwater-and."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lace, A., Ryan, D., Bowkett, M., and Cleary, J. (2019). Chromium Monitoring in Water by Colorimetry Using Optimised 1,5-Diphenylcarbazide Method. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16101803"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2020, July 27). USEPA Method 7197 Chromium, Hexavalent (Chelation\/Extraction), Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2015-12\/documents\/7197.pdf."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(98)00112-X","article-title":"The simple and rapid spectrophotometric determination of trace chromium(VI) after preconcentration as its colored complex on chitin","volume":"47","author":"Hoshi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2010). EFSA Scientific Opinion on the safety of trivalent chromium as a nutrient added for nutritional purposes to foodstuffs for particular nutritional uses and foods intended for the general population (including food supplements). EFSA J., 8, 1882."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Son, J., Morris, J., and Park, K. (2018). Toenail Chromium Concentration and Metabolic Syndrome among Korean Adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15040682"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nordberg, M., and Cherian, G.M. (2013). Chapter 9 Biological Response of Elements. Essentials of Medical Geology, Springer Science & Business Media. Revised ed.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4375-5_9"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"IARC CHROMIUM (VI) COMPOUNDS (2012). Arsenic, Metals, Fibres and Dusts, International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02917250","article-title":"Metabolic reduction of chromium, as related to its carcinogenic properties","volume":"21","author":"Serra","year":"1989","journal-title":"Biol. Trace Elem. Res"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/21.4.533","article-title":"Threshold mechanisms and site specificity in chromium(VI) carcinogenesis","volume":"21","year":"2000","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2016.07.004","article-title":"Reduction of hexavalent chromium by fasted and fed human gastric fluid. I. Chemical reduction and mitigation of mutagenicity","volume":"306","author":"Camoirano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1515\/intox-2016-0007","article-title":"Review article. Adverse hematological effects of hexavalent chromium: An overview","volume":"9","author":"Ray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Interdiscip. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00398817","article-title":"Experimental bases for ascorbic acid therapy of poisoning by hexavalent chromium compounds","volume":"53","author":"Korallus","year":"1984","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2002.tb00596.x","article-title":"Effects of chromium on the immune system","volume":"34","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2002","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1080\/10408444.2019.1578730","article-title":"Hexavalent chromium and stomach cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"49","author":"Suh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1782","DOI":"10.1080\/00958972.2011.583646","article-title":"Sources and toxicity of hexavalent chromium","volume":"64","author":"Saha","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Coord. Chem."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1097\/00043764-199903000-00004","article-title":"An Environmental Hazard Assessment of Low-Level Dermal Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium in Solution among Chromium-Sensitized Volunteers","volume":"41","author":"Fowler","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1080\/10807039.2017.1308813","article-title":"Assessment of risk to human health due to intake of chromium in the groundwater of the Aosta Valley region, Italy","volume":"23","author":"Tiwari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-015-0054-z","article-title":"Oral Chromium Exposure and Toxicity","volume":"2","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-019-7879-0","article-title":"Amplicon sequencing and imputed metagenomic analysis of waste soil and sediment microbiome reveals unique bacterial communities and their functional attributes","volume":"191","author":"Mathipi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Monit Assess"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mrfmmm.2011.12.002","article-title":"Chromium and genomic stability","volume":"733","author":"Wise","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mutat. Res.\/Fundam. Mol. Mech. Mutagenesis"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1080\/109374099281241","article-title":"Reduction of Chromium (vi) and Its Relationship to Carcinogenesis","volume":"2","author":"Shi","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2006.01.028","article-title":"Causes of DNA single-strand breaks during reduction of chromate by glutathione in vitro and in cells","volume":"40","author":"Messer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfu207","article-title":"DNA double-strand breaks by Cr(VI) are targeted to euchromatin and cause ATR-dependent phosphorylation of histone H2AX and its ubiquitination","volume":"143","author":"DeLoughery","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M.-H., Gao, X.-Y., Li, C., Yang, C.-L., Fu, C.-A., Liu, J., Wang, R., Chen, L.-X., Lin, J.-Q., and Liu, X.-M. (2020). Isolation and Identification of Chromium Reducing Bacillus Cereus Species from Chromium-Contaminated Soil for the Biological Detoxification of Chromium. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17062118"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23694","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23694","article-title":"An Exploratory Study on the Pathways of Cr (VI) Reduction in Sulfate-reducing Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Bed (UASB) Reactor","volume":"6","author":"Qian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chamy, R. (2013). Microbial Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium as a Mechanism of Detoxification and Possible Bioremediation Applications. Biodegradation\u2014Life of Science, InTech.","DOI":"10.5772\/52777"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12256","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-9967-4","article-title":"Reductive precipitation and removal of Cr(VI) from groundwaters by pipe flocculation-microfiltration","volume":"25","author":"Stylianou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2010.09.025","article-title":"Removal of Chromium (VI) from wastewater using bentonite-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron","volume":"45","author":"Shi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_112","first-page":"128","article-title":"Chromium remediation and toxicity assessment of nano zerovalent iron against contaminated lake water sample (Puliyanthangal Lake, Tamilnadu, India)","volume":"25","author":"Ahamed","year":"2018","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2015.07.051","article-title":"The removal of chromium (VI) and lead (II) from groundwater using sepiolite-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron (S-NZVI)","volume":"138","author":"Fu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2015.05.021","article-title":"Ion exchange recovery of chromium (VI) and manganese (II) from aqueous solutions","volume":"12","author":"Kononova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2017.01.074","article-title":"Rapid and effective removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution using exfoliated LDH nanosheets","volume":"520","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.serj.2017.04.001","article-title":"Hexavalent chromium removal from aqueous solution by adsorbents synthesized from groundwater treatment residuals","volume":"27","author":"Kan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sustain. Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gexplo.2016.07.012","article-title":"Comparative sorption of chromium species as influenced by pH, surface charge and organic matter content in contaminated soils","volume":"184","author":"Choppala","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geochem. Explor."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1006\/jcis.1998.5877","article-title":"Surface Hydroxyl Site Densities on Metal Oxides as a Measure for the Ion-Exchange Capacity","volume":"209","author":"Tamura","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2012.08.002","article-title":"Adsorption characteristics of modified sand for the removal of hexavalent chromium ions from aqueous solutions: Kinetic, thermodynamic and equilibrium studies","volume":"100","author":"Yadav","year":"2013","journal-title":"CATENA"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1080\/02757540.2017.1328503","article-title":"A review for chromium removal by carbon nanotubes","volume":"33","author":"Anastopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1039\/C9CP05529K","article-title":"DFT study on MgAl-layered double hydroxides with different interlayer anions: Structure, anion exchange, host\u2013guest interaction and basic sites","volume":"22","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1080\/10643389.2018.1564526","article-title":"A critical review on bioremediation technologies for Cr(VI)-contaminated soils and wastewater","volume":"49","author":"Xia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scp.2017.11.003","article-title":"Adsorption of hexavalent chromium in aqueous solution on activated carbon prepared from apple peels","volume":"7","author":"Enniya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molliq.2017.11.096","article-title":"Camellia oleifera seed shell carbon as an efficient renewable bio-adsorbent for the adsorption removal of hexavalent chromium and methylene blue from aqueous solution","volume":"249","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mol. Liq."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2018.04.011","article-title":"Optimization of strong-base anion exchange O&M costs for hexavalent chromium treatment","volume":"139","author":"Plummer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.watres.2017.03.018","article-title":"Regeneration of pilot-scale ion exchange columns for hexavalent chromium removal","volume":"118","author":"Korak","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1080\/01496390701446464","article-title":"Removal of Cr(VI) from Aqueous Solution: Electrocoagulation vs Chemical Coagulation","volume":"42","author":"Golder","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sep. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpe.2015.05.011","article-title":"Removal of Cr(VI) ions from waste water by electrocoagulation using iron electrode","volume":"24","author":"Nassef","year":"2015","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Pet."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Qodah, Z., and Al-Shannag, M. (2017). Heavy metal ions removal from wastewater using electrocoagulation processes: A comprehensive review. Sep. Sci. Technol., 1\u201328.","DOI":"10.1080\/01496395.2017.1373677"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelechem.2014.09.002","article-title":"Chromium ions (Cr6+ & Cr3+) removal from synthetic wastewater by electrocoagulation using vertical expanded Fe anode","volume":"735","author":"Zewail","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Electroanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1080\/01496395.2018.1563157","article-title":"Removal of chromium (VI) and lead from electroplating effluent using electrocoagulation","volume":"55","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sep. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Genawi, N.M., Ibrahim, M.H., El-Naas, M.H., and Alshaik, A.E. (2020). Chromium Removal from Tannery Wastewater by Electrocoagulation: Optimization and Sludge Characterization. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12051374"},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"412","article-title":"Removal of hexavalent chromium from electroplating wastewater by electrocoagulation with iron electrodes","volume":"13","author":"Dermentzis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Glob. NEST J."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbt.2014.02.011","article-title":"In situ groundwater and sediment bioremediation: Barriers and perspectives at European contaminated sites","volume":"32","author":"Majone","year":"2015","journal-title":"New Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"1831","article-title":"Cr(vi) remediation in groundwater aquifer media using natural organic matter as carbon source","volume":"61","author":"Mtimunye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s10123-019-00098-w","article-title":"Bioaccumulation of lead, chromium, and nickel by bacteria from three different genera isolated from industrial effluent","volume":"23","author":"Aslam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.btre.2019.e00307","article-title":"Comparative behavior of two gram positive Cr6+ resistant bacterial strains Bacillus aerius S1 and Brevibacterium iodinum S2 under hexavalent chromium stress","volume":"21","author":"Elahi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16824","DOI":"10.1039\/C8TA06571C","article-title":"Bacteria cell templated porous polyaniline facilitated detoxification and recovery of hexavalent chromium","volume":"6","author":"Gong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem. A"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1002\/ep.12344","article-title":"Adsorption and subsequent detoxification of hexavalent chromium in aqueous solution using polypyrrole-bacterial extracellular polysaccharide nanocomposite","volume":"35","author":"Rajeswari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1002\/clen.201000259","article-title":"Chromium Removal through Biosorption and Bioaccumulation by Bacteria from Tannery Effluents Contaminated Soil","volume":"39","author":"Alam","year":"2011","journal-title":"CLEAN\u2013Soil Air Water"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derco, J., and Vrana, B. (2018). Biosorption of Heavy Metals. Biosorption, BoD\u2013Books on Demand.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.68261"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2730","DOI":"10.1080\/01694243.2017.1321178","article-title":"Correlation between cell surface physicochemical properties of bacterial strains and their chromium removal potential","volume":"31","author":"Asri","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Adhes. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.141.2.876-887.1980","article-title":"Sites of metal deposition in the cell wall of Bacillus subtilis","volume":"141","author":"Beveridge","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dib.2018.04.014","article-title":"Adsorption of cadmium and lead onto live and dead cell mass of Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A dataset","volume":"18","author":"Karimpour","year":"2018","journal-title":"Data Brief"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Igiri, B.E., Okoduwa, S.I.R., Idoko, G.O., Akabuogu, E.P., Adeyi, A.O., and Ejiogu, I.K. (2018). Toxicity and Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Contaminated Ecosystem from Tannery Wastewater: A Review. J. Toxicol., 2018.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/2568038"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s11274-016-2150-0","article-title":"Microbial interactions with chromium: Basic biological processes and applications in environmental biotechnology","volume":"32","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"Volesky, B., and Holan, Z.R. (2020, June 23). Biosorption of Heavy Metals. Available online: https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/bp00033a001."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-6535(02)00089-9","article-title":"Chromium (VI) biosorption and bioaccumulation by chromate resistant bacteria","volume":"48","author":"Srinath","year":"2002","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s13762-017-1378-z","article-title":"Bioremediation of chromium(VI) by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolated from tannery effluent","volume":"15","author":"Raman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.08.061","article-title":"Co-expression of YieF and PhoN in Deinococcus radiodurans R1 improves uranium bioprecipitation by reducing chromium interference","volume":"211","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1080\/10889868.2017.1282939","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of chromium(VI)-reducing Bacillus sp. FY1 and Arthrobacter sp. WZ2 and their bioremediation potential","volume":"21","author":"Xiao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bioremediation J."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, M.S.M., El-Arabi, N.I., El-Hussein, A., El-Maaty, S.A., and Abdelhadi, A.A. (2020). Reduction of chromium-VI by chromium-resistant Escherichia coli FACU: A prospective bacterium for bioremediation. Folia Microbiol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12223-020-00771-y"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biori.2019.04.001","article-title":"Investigation of the role of chromium reductase for Cr (VI) reduction by Pseudomonas species isolated from Cr (VI) contaminated effluent","volume":"3","author":"Wani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Res. Innov."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.03.016","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of the reduction and resistance mechanisms of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 under long-term hexavalent chromium stress","volume":"127","author":"Gang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biortech.2018.07.012","article-title":"Enhanced sulfate and metal removal by reduced graphene oxide self-assembled Enterococcus avium sulfate-reducing bacteria particles","volume":"266","author":"Yan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3076","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.01766-07","article-title":"van A Novel Chromate Reductase from Thermus scotoductus SA-01 Related to Old Yellow Enzyme","volume":"190","author":"Opperman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-020-2103-y","article-title":"Study on Ochrobactrum pseudintermedium ADV31 for the removal of hexavalent chromium through different immobilization techniques","volume":"2","author":"Tandon","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemgeo.2017.10.004","article-title":"Determination of Cr(III) solids formed by reduction of Cr(VI) in a contaminated fractured bedrock aquifer: Evidence for natural attenuation of Cr(VI)","volume":"474","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Geol."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2017.05.004","article-title":"Study on the removal of hexavalent chromium from contaminated groundwater using emulsified vegetable oil","volume":"109","author":"Wen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2019.10.011","article-title":"Sulfur-based mixotrophic bio-reduction for efficient removal of chromium (VI) in groundwater","volume":"268","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2017.07.048","article-title":"Light-independent redox reactions of graphene oxide in water: Electron transfer from NADH through graphene oxide to molecular oxygen, producing reactive oxygen species","volume":"123","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11892","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms160611892","article-title":"Chromate Reductase YieF from Escherichia coli Enhances Hexavalent Chromium Resistance of Human HepG2 Cells","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eswaramoorthy, S., Poulain, S., Hienerwadel, R., Bremond, N., Sylvester, M.D., Zhang, Y.-B., Berthomieu, C., Van Der Lelie, D., and Matin, A. (2012). Crystal Structure of ChrR\u2014A Quinone Reductase with the Capacity to Reduce Chromate. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036017"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3371","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.188.9.3371-3381.2006","article-title":"Effect of Chromate Stress on Escherichia coli K-12","volume":"188","author":"Ackerley","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10534-007-9121-8","article-title":"Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to chromium compounds","volume":"21","author":"Vargas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biometals"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124896","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.124896","article-title":"Coupling enhancement of Chromium(VI) bioreduction in groundwater by phosphorus minerals","volume":"240","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_167","unstructured":"EPA (2020, July 27). Chapter X In-Situ Groundwater Bioremediation, How to Evaluate Alternative Cleanup Technologies for Underground Storage Tank Sites a Guide for Corrective Action Plan Reviewers, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/sites\/production\/files\/2014-03\/documents\/tum_ch10.pdf."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-2243-3_2","article-title":"Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: A Framework for Structuring Remedial Decisions at Contaminated Sites","volume":"Volume 38","author":"Linkov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comparative Risk Assessment and Environmental Decision Making"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crini, G., and Lichtfouse, E. (2018). Green Adsorbents for Pollutant Removal: Innovative Materials, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-92162-4"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.04.117","article-title":"A review on cleaner strategies for chromium industrial wastewater: Present research and future perspective","volume":"228","author":"GracePavithra","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_171","first-page":"59","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of Electrocoagulation Process for Removal of Chromium (VI) from Synthetic Chromium Solutions Using Iron and Aluminum Electrodes","volume":"32","author":"Bazrafshan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Turk. J. Eng. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7232","DOI":"10.1080\/19443994.2015.1021847","article-title":"Effect of acid modification on adsorption of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) from aqueous solution by activated carbon and carbon nanotubes","volume":"57","author":"Ihsanullah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Desalin. Water Treat."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/15\/5438\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T09:52:24Z","timestamp":1760176344000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/17\/15\/5438"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,28]]},"references-count":172,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph17155438"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph17155438","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,28]]}}}