{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,7]],"date-time":"2026-05-07T18:58:43Z","timestamp":1778180323811,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]],"date-time":"2020-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1607040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Following the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, several studies have examined the possibility of correlating the virulence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes COVID-19, to the climatic conditions of the involved sites; however, inconclusive results have been generally obtained. Although neither air temperature nor humidity can be independently correlated with virus viability, a strong relationship between SARS-CoV-2 virulence and the specific enthalpy of moist air appears to exist, as confirmed by extensive data analysis. Given this framework, the present study involves a detailed investigation based on the first 20\u201330 days of the epidemic before public health interventions in 30 selected Italian provinces with rather different climates, here assumed as being representative of what happened in the country from North to South, of the relationship between COVID-19 distributions and the climatic conditions recorded at each site before the pandemic outbreak. Accordingly, a correlating equation between the incidence rate at the early stage of the epidemic and the foregoing average specific enthalpy of atmospheric air was developed, and an enthalpy-based seasonal virulence risk scale was proposed to predict the potential danger of COVID-19 outbreak due to the persistence of weather conditions favorable to SARS-CoV-2 viability. As an early detection tool, an unambiguous risk chart expressed in terms of coupled temperatures and relative humidity (RH) values was provided, showing that safer conditions occur in the case of higher RHs at the highest temperatures, and of lower RHs at the lowest temperatures. Despite the complex determinism and dynamics of the pandemic and the related caveats, the restriction of the study to its early stage allowed the proposed risk scale to result in agreement with the available infectivity data highlighted in the literature for a number of cities around the world.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17239059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]],"date-time":"2020-12-04T11:59:00Z","timestamp":1607083140000},"page":"9059","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Predicting SARS-CoV-2 Weather-Induced Seasonal Virulence from Atmospheric Air Enthalpy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Angelo","family":"Spena","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Enterprise Engineering, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1806-5278","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonardo","family":"Palombi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4099-7506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Corcione","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Astronautical, Electrical and Energy Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2356-914X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Quintino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Astronautical, Electrical and Energy Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7811-5201","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariachiara","family":"Carestia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering, Tor Vergata University of Rome, 00133 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2685-8702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo Andrea","family":"Spena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Astronautical, Electrical and Energy Engineering, Sapienza University of Rome, 00184 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lowen, A.C., Mubareka, S., Steel, J., and Palese, P. 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