{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T23:22:43Z","timestamp":1790810563466,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]],"date-time":"2021-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1612656000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are commonly found in consumer products, including furniture, sealants and paints. Thus, indoor VOCs have become a public health concern, especially in high-income countries (HICs), where people spend most of their time indoors, and indoor and outdoor air exchange is minimal due to a lack of ventilation. VOCs produce high levels of reaction with the airway epithelium and mucosa membrane and is linked with pulmonary diseases. This paper takes a stock of the literature to assess the strength of association (measured by effect size) between VOCs and pulmonary diseases with the focus on asthma and its related symptoms by conducting a meta-analysis. The literature was searched using the PubMed database. A total of 49 studies that measured VOCs or VOC types and pulmonary health outcomes were included in the analysis. The results of these studies were tabulated, and standard effect size of each study was computed. Most studies were conducted in high-income countries, including France (n = 7), Japan (n = 7) and the United States (n = 6). Our analysis suggests that VOCs have a medium-sized effect on pulmonary diseases, including the onset of asthma (effect size (or Cohen\u2019s d) ~0.37; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.25\u20130.49; n = 23) and wheezing (effective size ~0.26; 95% CI = 0.10\u20130.42; n = 10). The effect size also varied by country, age and disease type. Multiple stakeholders must be engaged in strategies to mitigate and manage VOC exposure and its associated pulmonary disease burden.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18041578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,8]],"date-time":"2021-02-08T20:51:51Z","timestamp":1612817511000},"page":"1578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":129,"title":["Pulmonary Health Effects of Indoor Volatile Organic Compounds\u2014A Meta-Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Kyle L.","family":"Alford","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6200-9172","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naresh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Environmental Health, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32154-2","article-title":"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990\u20132016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"390","author":"Vos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Global Health Estimates (2018). Disease Burden by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000\u20132016, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2214.2004.00486.x","article-title":"The social and economic consequences of childhood asthma across the lifecourse: A systematic review","volume":"30","author":"Milton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Child. Care Health Dev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1007\/s40273-018-0726-2","article-title":"The Economic Burden of Pediatric Asthma in the United States: Literature Review of Current Evidence","volume":"37","author":"Perry","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacoeconomics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2010.11.015","article-title":"Heterogeneity of severe asthma in childhood: Confirmation by cluster analysis of children in the National Institutes of Health\/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Severe Asthma Research Program","volume":"127","author":"Fitzpatrick","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41533-019-0126-x","article-title":"The health and social implications of household air pollution and respiratory diseases","volume":"29","author":"Simkovich","year":"2019","journal-title":"NPJ Prim. Care Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"The World Bank (2020, August 20). GDP (Current US$). Available online: https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Bank, T.W. (2020, August 20). Global Consumption Database. Available online: http:\/\/datatopics.worldbank.org\/consumption\/product\/."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"FRED (2020, August 10). Advance Retail Sales: Furniture and Home Furnishings Stores (RSFHFS). Available online: https:\/\/fred.stlouisfed.org\/series\/RSFHFS."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"EPA (2020, June 10). Volatile Organic Compounds\u2019 Impact on Indoor Air Quality, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/indoor-air-quality-iaq\/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-quality."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lapillonne, B. (2020, August 20). Cooling Degree Days (CDD): \u201cEnerDemand\u201d. AC Ownership: Internal Data Base from National Sources. GDP per Capita: \u201cGlobal Energy & CO2 Data\u201d Based on World Bank., Available online: https:\/\/www.enerdata.net\/publications\/executive-briefing\/the-future-air-conditioning-global-demand.html."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500165","article-title":"The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): A resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants","volume":"11","author":"Klepeis","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yun, B.H., Guo, J., and Turesky, R.J. (2018). Formalin-Fixed Paraffin-Embedded Tissues\u2014An Untapped Biospecimen for Biomonitoring DNA Adducts by Mass Spectrometry. Toxics, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics6020030"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.3109\/02770903.2013.834931","article-title":"Systematic review of the effects of domestic paints on asthma related symptoms in people with or without asthma","volume":"50","author":"Canova","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1183\/09059180.00000714","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds and risk of asthma and allergy: A systematic review","volume":"24","author":"Nurmatov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1080\/10937404.2015.1134371","article-title":"A systematic review of evidence and implications of spatial and seasonal variations of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in indoor human environments","volume":"19","author":"Paciencia","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0668.2003.00153.x","article-title":"Indoor air quality, ventilation and health symptoms in schools: An analysis of existing information","volume":"13","author":"Daisey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1111\/all.12793","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds in asthma diagnosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"71","author":"Rufo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borenstein, M., Hedges, L.V., Higgins, J.P.T., and Rothstein, H.R. (2009). Introduction to Meta-Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470743386"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Stata (2017). Stata\/Mp 14.2\u2014Data Analysis and Statistical Software, Stata Corp. LP."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2011.02.008","article-title":"Quantitative assessments of indoor air pollution and respiratory health in a population-based sample of French dwellings","volume":"111","author":"Billionnet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s40248-019-0194-3","article-title":"Indoor exposure to particulate matter and volatile organic compounds in dwellings and workplaces and respiratory health in French farmers","volume":"14","author":"Maesano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Multidiscip. Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.02.00245002","article-title":"Domestic exposure to formaldehyde significantly increases the risk of asthma in young children","volume":"20","author":"Rumchev","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2003.013680","article-title":"Association of domestic exposure to volatile organic compounds with asthma in young children","volume":"59","author":"Rumchev","year":"2004","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1398-9995.1999.00763.x","article-title":"Increased risk of allergy in children due to formaldehyde exposure in homes","volume":"54","author":"Garrett","year":"1999","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1111\/pai.12082","article-title":"Relationships between molds and asthma suggesting non-allergic mechanisms. A rural-urban comparison","volume":"24","author":"Caillaud","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pediatr. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0668.2010.00673.x","article-title":"Indoor air pollution and childhood asthma: Variations between urban and rural areas","volume":"20","author":"Hulin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, H., Schmidbauer, S.J., Hasselgren, M., Spengler, J., and Bornehag, C.G.N. (2010). Common household chemicals and the allergy risks in pre-school age children. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0013423"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2011-200391","article-title":"Poor air quality in classrooms related to asthma and rhinitis in primary schoolchildren of the French 6 Cities Study","volume":"67","author":"Hulin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2012.02.011","article-title":"Positive associations between respiratory outcomes and fungal index in rural inhabitants of a representative sample of French dwellings","volume":"216","author":"Hulin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-007-0183-2","article-title":"Association between personal exposure to volatile organic compounds and asthma among US adult population","volume":"80","author":"Arif","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"137","article-title":"Influence of indoor formaldehyde pollution on respiratory system health in the urban area of Shenyang, China","volume":"13","author":"Zhai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Afr. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1177\/1420326X08096413","article-title":"Prevalence of Plastic Additives in Indoor Air related to Newly Diagnosed Asthma","volume":"17","author":"Villbert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indoor Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3051","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7083051","article-title":"Evaporative gasoline emissions and asthma symptoms","volume":"7","author":"Gordian","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annepidem.2013.09.004","article-title":"The relationships between ambient air pollutants and childhood asthma and eczema are modified by emotion and conduct problems","volume":"23","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-004-0535-0","article-title":"Symptoms in relation to chemicals and dampness in newly built dwellings","volume":"77","author":"Saijo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.jea.7500287","article-title":"Respiratory symptoms and peak expiratory flow in children with asthma in relation to volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath and ambient air","volume":"13","author":"Delfino","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2008.09.052","article-title":"Increased asthma and respiratory symptoms in children exposed to petrochemical pollution","volume":"123","author":"Wichmann","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"046007","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/5\/4\/046007","article-title":"Correlations between health status and OralChroma-determined volatile sulfide levels in mouth air of the elderly","volume":"5","author":"Awano","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Breath Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0668.2006.00466.x","article-title":"Indoor molds, bacteria, microbial volatile organic compounds and plasticizers in schools\u2014Associations with asthma and respiratory symptoms in pupils","volume":"17","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Indoor Air"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139870","article-title":"Indoor air pollution, physical and comfort parameters related to schoolchildren\u2019s health: Data from the European SINPHONIE study","volume":"739","author":"Baloch","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110615","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2020.110615","article-title":"The exposure risk of typical VOCs to the human beings via inhalation based on the respiratory deposition rates by proton transfer reaction-time of flight-mass spectrometer","volume":"197","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12965","article-title":"Exhaled breath profiles in the monitoring of loss of control and clinical recovery in asthma","volume":"47","author":"Brinkman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2004.047191","article-title":"Infant sleeping environment and asthma at 7 years: A prospective cohort study","volume":"95","author":"Trevillian","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.10.072","article-title":"Is residential ambient air limonene associated with asthma? Findings from the Canadian Health Measures Survey","volume":"244","author":"Dales","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00086807","article-title":"Household chemicals, persistent wheezing and lung function: Effect modification by atopy?","volume":"31","author":"Henderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2005.12.1311","article-title":"Ipeadam study: Indoor endotoxin exposure, family status, and some housing characteristics in English children","volume":"117","author":"Tavernier","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.10576","article-title":"Asthmatic symptoms among pupils in relation to winter indoor and outdoor air pollution in schools in Taiyuan, China","volume":"116","author":"Zhao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1104090","article-title":"Indoor air pollutants and health in the United Arab Emirates","volume":"120","author":"Yeatts","year":"2012","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-018-7182-5","article-title":"Indoor air quality-induced respiratory symptoms of a hospital staff in Iran","volume":"191","author":"Veysi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e328","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(17)30134-1","article-title":"Early-life exposure to indoor air pollution or tobacco smoke and lower respiratory tract illness and wheezing in African infants: A longitudinal birth cohort study","volume":"1","author":"Vanker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.08.013","article-title":"Prenatal VOC exposure and redecoration are related to wheezing in early infancy","volume":"73","author":"Franck","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/S0873-2159(15)30254-3","article-title":"Indoor air quality and respiratory symptoms in Porto schools","volume":"14","author":"Fraga","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Port. Pneumol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.02.215","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds (VOC), formaldehyde and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in schools in Johor Bahru, Malaysia: Associations with rhinitis, ocular, throat and dermal symptoms, headache and fatigue","volume":"592","author":"Norback","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.02.012","article-title":"Relationship between selected indoor volatile organic compounds, so-called microbial VOC, and the prevalence of mucous membrane symptoms in single family homes","volume":"408","author":"Araki","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5833","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph120605833","article-title":"Building-Related Symptoms among Office Employees Associated with Indoor Carbon Dioxide and Total Volatile Organic Compounds","volume":"12","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.3961\/jpmph.2014.47.3.169","article-title":"Assessment of occupational symptoms and chemical exposures for nail salon technicians in Daegu City, Korea","volume":"47","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Prev. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1539\/joh.11-0202-OA","article-title":"Does open-air exposure to volatile organic compounds near a plastic recycling factory cause health effects?","volume":"54","author":"Yorifuji","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Occup. Health"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1007\/s00420-009-0395-8","article-title":"Relationship between sick building syndrome and indoor environmental factors in newly built Japanese dwellings","volume":"82","author":"Takeda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.147","article-title":"Physicochemical risk factors for building-related symptoms in air-conditioned office buildings: Ambient particles and combined exposure to indoor air pollutants","volume":"616\u2013617","author":"Azuma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1080\/15428119591016629","article-title":"Sensory irritation in mice exposed to emissions from indoor products","volume":"56","author":"Muller","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.58.11.955","article-title":"Effects of volatile organic compounds, damp, and other environmental exposures in the home on wheezing illness in children","volume":"58","author":"Venn","year":"2003","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.02.026","article-title":"The relationship between exposure to microbial volatile organic compound and allergy prevalence in single-family homes","volume":"423","author":"Araki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afv157","article-title":"The impact of indoor air quality and contaminants on respiratory health of older people living in long-term care residences in Porto","volume":"45","author":"Mendes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1078\/1438-4639-00218","article-title":"Redecoration of apartments promotes obstructive bronchitis in atopy risk infants\u2014Results of the LARS Study","volume":"206","author":"Diez","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.52.6.388","article-title":"Asthmatic symptoms and volatile organic compounds, formaldehyde, and carbon dioxide in dwellings","volume":"52","author":"Norback","year":"1995","journal-title":"Occup. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1078\/S1438-4639(04)70004-8","article-title":"Effects of indoor painting and smoking on airway symptoms in atopy risk children in the first year of life results of the LARS-study. Leipzig Allergy High-Risk Children Study","volume":"203","author":"Diez","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwt290","article-title":"Invited commentary: Epidemiologic studies of the impact of air pollution on lung cancer","volume":"179","author":"Hart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.126324","article-title":"Indoor occurrence and health risk of formaldehyde, toluene, xylene and total volatile organic compounds derived from an extensive monitoring campaign in Harbin, a megacity of China","volume":"250","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"WHO (2020, October 02). Global Health Observatory Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/gho\/phe\/outdoor_air_pollution\/exposure\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13605","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b02967","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Species Generation Linked to Sources of Atmospheric Particulate Matter and Cardiorespiratory Effects","volume":"49","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2018.08.048","article-title":"Functional green wall development for increasing air pollutant phytoremediation: Substrate development with coconut coir and activated carbon","volume":"360","author":"Pettit","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2019.00015","article-title":"Mortality and Air Pollution Effects of Air Quality Interventions in Delhi and Beijing","volume":"7","author":"Sinha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Environ. Sci."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/4\/1578\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:21:01Z","timestamp":1760160061000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/4\/1578"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18041578"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18041578","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,7]]}}}