{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T22:57:40Z","timestamp":1788908260391,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1613692800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Online gambling has continued to grow alongside new ways to analyze data using behavioral tracking as a way to enhance consumer protection. A number of studies have analyzed consumers that have used voluntary self-exclusion (VSE) as a proxy measure for problem gambling. However, some scholars have argued that this is a poor proxy for problem gambling. Therefore, the present study examined this issue by analyzing customers (from the gambling operator Unibet) that have engaged in VSE. The participants comprised of costumers that chose to use the six-month VSE option (n = 7732), and customers that chose to close their Unibet account due to a specific self-reported gambling addiction (n = 141). Almost one-fifth of the customers that used six-month VSE only had gambling activity for less than 24 h (19.15%). Moreover, half of the customers had less than seven days of account registration prior to six-month VSE (50.39%). Customers who use VSE are too different to be treated as a homogenous group and therefore VSE is not a reliable proxy measure for problem gambling. The findings of this research are beneficial for operators, researchers, and policymakers because it provides insight into gambling behavior by analyzing real player behavior using tracking technologies, which is objective and unbiased.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18042000","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]],"date-time":"2021-02-19T09:06:10Z","timestamp":1613725570000},"page":"2000","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Understanding Online Voluntary Self-Exclusion in Gambling: An Empirical Study Using Account-Based Behavioral Tracking Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5103-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maris","family":"Catania","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kindred Group, Tigne Point, Sliema TPO0001, Malta"},{"name":"Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8880-6524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark D.","family":"Griffiths","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, 50 Shakespeare Street, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1089\/glre.2013.1784","article-title":"Behavioural tracking tools, regulation, and corporate social responsibility in online gambling","volume":"17","author":"Auer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gaming. Law Rev. Econ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2011.628684","article-title":"Defining the online gambler and patterns of behaviour integration: Evidence from the British Gambling Prevalence Survey 2010","volume":"11","author":"Wardle","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Gambling Commission (2020). Gambling participation in 2019: Behaviour, Awareness and Attitudes. Annu. Rep., updated publication."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.4018\/ijcbpl.2013010104","article-title":"A scoping study of the structural and situational characteristics of internet gambling","volume":"3","author":"McCormack","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Cyber Behav. Psychol. Learn."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1525","article-title":"A busted flush: Regulation of online gambling in the European Union","volume":"37","author":"Lovejoy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Fordham Int. Law J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/13600830903424718","article-title":"Online gambling and international regulation: An outside bet","volume":"18","author":"Devaney","year":"2009","journal-title":"Inf. Commun. Technol. Law."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028545","article-title":"Behavioral characteristics of Internet gamblers who trigger corporate responsible gambling interventions","volume":"26","author":"Gray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1089\/109493103322725333","article-title":"Internet gambling: Issues, concerns and recommendations","volume":"6","author":"Griffiths","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology Behav."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1177\/1461444813518185","article-title":"How risky is Internet gambling? A comparison of subgroups of Internet gamblers based on problem gambling status","volume":"17","author":"Gainsbury","year":"2015","journal-title":"New Media Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1089\/cpb.2008.0196","article-title":"Socio-demographic correlates of internet gambling: Findings from the 2007 British Gambling Prevalence Survey","volume":"12","author":"Griffiths","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cyber Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-007-9067-3","article-title":"Assessing the playing field: A prospective longitudinal study of internet sports gambling behavior","volume":"23","author":"LaBrie","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2012.754919","article-title":"Markers of unsustainable gambling for early detection of at-risk online gamblers","volume":"13","author":"Adami","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-016-9624-8","article-title":"A critical review of the harm-minimisation tools available for electronic gambling","volume":"33","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, R.T., and Griffiths, M.D. (2015). Understanding positive play: An exploration of playing experiences and responsible gambling practices. J. Gambl. Stud., 1715\u20131734.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-014-9489-7"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2014.893585","article-title":"Online gambling participation and problem gambling severity: Is there a causal relationship?","volume":"14","author":"Philander","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2011.604643","article-title":"Early detection items and responsible gambling features for online gambling","volume":"11","author":"Haefeli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JOGS.0000040281.49444.e2","article-title":"A science-based framework for responsible gambling: The Reno model","volume":"20","author":"Blaszczynski","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1037\/ort0000123","article-title":"Extending the RENO model: Clinical and ethical applications","volume":"86","author":"Shaffer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Orthopsychiat."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"189","article-title":"Corporate social responsibility in the UK gambling industry","volume":"9","author":"Jones","year":"2009","journal-title":"Corp. Gov. Int. J. Bus. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2020, November 13). Paddy Power Betfair Penalised over Gamblers\u2019 Stolen Funds. Available online: https:\/\/gamblingcompliance.com\/premium-content\/insights_analysis\/paddy-power-betfair-penalised-over-gamblers-stolen-funds."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langham, E., Thorne, H., Browne, M., Donaldson, P., Rose, J., and Rockloff, M. (2015). Understanding gambling related harm: A proposed definition, conceptual framework, and taxonomy of harms. BMC Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-016-2747-0"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.329.7474.1055","article-title":"Betting your life on it: Problem gambling has clear health related consequences","volume":"329","author":"Griffiths","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/cku210","article-title":"The extent and distribution of gambling harm in Finland as assessed by the Problem Gambling Severity Index","volume":"25","author":"Raisamo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"104","article-title":"Online behavioural tracking in Internet gambling research: Ethical and methodological issues","volume":"3","author":"Griffiths","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Internet Res. Ethics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2011.629204","article-title":"Analysis of casino online gambling data in relation to behavioural risk markers for high-risk gambling and player protection","volume":"11","author":"Dragicevic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2014.980297","article-title":"Communications-based early detection of gambling-related problems in online gambling","volume":"15","author":"Haefeli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-007-9083-7","article-title":"Internet gambling: An online empirical study among student gamblers","volume":"6","author":"Griffiths","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Ad."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-013-9473-y","article-title":"Rating the suitability of responsible gambling features for specific game types: A resource for optimizing responsible gambling strategy","volume":"12","author":"Wood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int J. Ment. Health Ad."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-013-9418-1","article-title":"A descriptive analysis of demographic and behavioural data from internet gamblers and those who self-exclude from online gambling platforms","volume":"31","author":"Dragicevic","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-008-9110-z","article-title":"Improved self-exclusion program: Preliminary results","volume":"24","author":"Tremblay","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1089\/109493104322820110","article-title":"Internet gambling and social responsibility: An exploratory study","volume":"7","author":"Smeaton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cyber Psychol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1089\/glre.2017.2134","article-title":"Analyzing consumer protection for gamblers across different online gambling operators: A descriptive study","volume":"21","author":"Bonello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gaming Law Rev. Econ."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"99","article-title":"Social responsibility in gambling: The implications of real-time behavioural tracking","volume":"5","author":"Griffiths","year":"2009","journal-title":"Casino Gaming Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s40429-019-00269-9","article-title":"Applying data science to behavioral analysis of online gambling","volume":"6","author":"Deng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Addict. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1089\/glre.2012.1655","article-title":"Theoretical loss and gambling intensity: A simulation study","volume":"16","author":"Auer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gaming Law Rev. Econ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-013-9376-7","article-title":"An empirical investigation of theoretical loss and gambling intensity","volume":"30","author":"Auer","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-012-9332-y","article-title":"Voluntary limit setting and player choice in most intense online gamblers: An empirical study of gambling behaviour","volume":"29","author":"Auer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2008.02.015","article-title":"Population trends in Internet sports gambling","volume":"24","author":"LaPlante","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2016.1158306","article-title":"Follow the money: Using payment behaviour as predictor for future self-exclusion","volume":"16","author":"Haeusler","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"00019","article-title":"Should voluntary self-exclusion by gamblers be used as a proxy measure for problem gambling?","volume":"2","author":"Griffiths","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Addict. Med. Ther."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-009-9118-z","article-title":"How do gamblers end gambling: Longitudinal analysis of Internet gambling behaviors prior to account closure due to gambling related problems","volume":"25","author":"Xuan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.3109\/16066359.2010.512106","article-title":"Identifying behavioral markers of disordered Internet sports gambling","volume":"19","author":"LaBrie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Addict. Res. Theory"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2016.1151913","article-title":"Predicting online gambling self-exclusion: An analysis of the performance of supervised machine learning models","volume":"16","author":"Percy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1093\/eurpub\/ckp232","article-title":"How do gamblers start gambling: Identifying behavioural markers for high-risk internet gambling","volume":"22","author":"Braverman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-010-9288-z","article-title":"Internet self-exclusion: Characteristics of self-excluded gamblers and preliminary evidence for its effectiveness","volume":"9","author":"Hayer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health Ad."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009488308348","article-title":"Brief communications analysis of a casino\u2019s self-exclusion program","volume":"16","author":"Ladouceur","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1007\/s10899-016-9648-0","article-title":"Self-reported losses versus actual losses in online gambling: An empirical study","volume":"33","author":"Auer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Gambl. Stud."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1080\/14459795.2011.571217","article-title":"Player account-based gambling: Potentials for behaviour-based research methodologies","volume":"11","author":"Gainsbury","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Gambl. Stud."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/4\/2000\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:26:02Z","timestamp":1760160362000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/4\/2000"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18042000"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18042000","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,19]]}}}