{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,27]],"date-time":"2026-09-27T05:35:28Z","timestamp":1790487328008,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615334400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition of the central nervous system (CNS) that presents with severe communication problems, impairment of social interactions, and stereotypic behaviours. Emerging studies indicate possible associations between viral infections and neurodegenerative and neurobehavioural conditions including autism. Viral infection during critical periods of early in utero neurodevelopment may lead to increased risk of autism in the offspring. This review is aimed at highlighting the association between viral infections, including viruses similar to COVID-19, and the aetiology of autism. A literature search was conducted using Pubmed, Ovid\/Medline, and Google Scholar database. Relevant search terms included \u201crubella and autism\u201d, \u201ccytomegalovirus and autism\u201d, \u201cinfluenza virus and autism\u201d, \u201cZika virus and autism\u201d, \u201cCOVID-19 and autism\u201d. Based on the search terms, a total of 141 articles were obtained and studies on infants or children with congenital or perinatal viral infection and autistic behaviour were evaluated. The possible mechanisms by which viral infections could lead to autism include direct teratogenic effects and indirect effects of inflammation or maternal immune activation on the developing brain. Brain imaging studies have shown that the ensuing immune response from these viral infections could lead to disruption of the development of brain regions and structures. Hence, long-term follow up is necessary for infants whose mothers report an inflammatory event due to viral infection at any time during pregnancy to monitor for signs of autism. Research into the role of viral infection in the development of ASD may be one avenue of improving ASD outcomes in the future. Early screening and diagnosis to detect, and maybe even prevent ASD are essential to reduce the burden of this condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18062817","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]],"date-time":"2021-03-10T13:27:20Z","timestamp":1615382840000},"page":"2817","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":62,"title":["Association between Viral Infections and Risk of Autistic Disorder: An Overview"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Ahmad Naqib","family":"Shuid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kepala Batas 13200, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9742-160X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Putri Ayu","family":"Jayusman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nazrun","family":"Shuid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sg Buloh 47000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juriza","family":"Ismail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Autism Research Group, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norazlin","family":"Kamal Nor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Autism Research Group, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isa Naina","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 56000, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2000). 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