{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T12:03:54Z","timestamp":1791461034889,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]],"date-time":"2021-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Least developed countries (LDCs) are home to over a billion people throughout Africa, Asia-Pacific, and the Caribbean. The people who live in LDCs represent just 13% of the global population but 40% of its growth rate. Characterised by low incomes and low education levels, high proportions of the population practising subsistence living, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of economic diversity and resilience, LDCs face serious health, environmental, social, and economic challenges. Many communities in LDCs have very limited access to adequate sanitation, safe water, and clean cooking fuel. LDCs are environmentally vulnerable; facing depletion of natural resources, the effects of unsustainable urbanization, and the impacts of climate change, leaving them unable to safeguard their children\u2019s lifetime health and wellbeing. This paper reviews and describes the complexity of the causal relationships between children\u2019s health and its environmental, social, and economic influences in LDCs using a causal loop diagram (CLD). The results identify some critical feedbacks between poverty, family size, population growth, children\u2019s and adults\u2019 health, inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), air pollution, and education levels in LDCs and suggest leverage points for potential interventions. A CLD can also be a starting point for quantitative systems science approaches in the field, which can predict and compare the effects of interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18063010","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]],"date-time":"2021-03-15T11:38:58Z","timestamp":1615808338000},"page":"3010","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Applications of Systems Science to Understand and Manage Multiple Influences within Children\u2019s Environmental Health in Least Developed Countries: A Causal Loop Diagram Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8686-4237","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claire F.","family":"Brereton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s Health and Environment Programme, Child Health Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5839-698X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Jagals","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Children\u2019s Health and Environment Programme, Child Health Research Centre, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4101, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Landrigan, P., and Etzel, R. 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