{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T15:28:43Z","timestamp":1770564523666,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]],"date-time":"2021-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616630400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smoking during pregnancy is a modifiable risk behavior of adverse health outcomes including low birth weight (LBW), and LBW is a key marker of newborns immediate and future health. This study aimed to examine the association between smoking cessation during the second half of pregnancy and LBW among babies born in Southern New South Wales Local Health District (SNSWLHD). Routinely collected perinatal data on singleton live births for the period 2011\u20132019 in five public hospitals of SNSWLHD were utilized. Multivariate logistic regression models were fitted to examine the association between smoking cessation during the second half of pregnancy and LBW. Analyses showed that mothers who ceased smoking during the second half of pregnancy were 44% less likely to have LBW babies (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.56; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.34, 0.94) compared to those who continued smoking throughout pregnancy. Mothers who reported an average daily dose of 1\u201310 or &gt;10 cigarettes during the second half of pregnancy were significantly more likely to have babies with LBW than those who ceased smoking during the second half of pregnancy. Early identification of smoking behavior and promotion of smoking-cessation intervention for risk populations including pregnant women within the older age bracket (35\u201349 years) is imperative to reduce LBW.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18073417","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]],"date-time":"2021-03-25T14:51:12Z","timestamp":1616683872000},"page":"3417","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Smoking Cessation during the Second Half of Pregnancy Prevents Low Birth Weight among Australian Born Babies in Regional New South Wales"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7902-7294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pramesh Raj","family":"Ghimire","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health, Southern New South Wales Local Health District, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Julie","family":"Mooney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nursing and Midwifery, Southern New South Wales Local Health District, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Louise","family":"Fox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Care and Allied Health, Southern New South Wales Local Health District, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lorraine","family":"Dubois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Population Health, Southern New South Wales Local Health District, Queanbeyan, NSW 2620, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e849","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30565-5","article-title":"National, regional, and worldwide estimates of low birthweight in 2015, with trends from 2000: A systematic analysis","volume":"7","author":"Blencowe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2020, September 02). International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/classifications\/icd\/ICD10Volume2_en_2010.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-016-0389-2","article-title":"Low birth weight leads to obesity, diabetes and increased leptin levels in adults: The CoLaus study","volume":"15","author":"Jornayvaz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S102","DOI":"10.1111\/1753-6405.12426","article-title":"Low birthweight increases risk for cardiovascular disease hospitalisations in a remote Indigenous Australian community\u2013a prospective cohort study","volume":"40","author":"Arnold","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hlc.2013.11.018","article-title":"Birth weight and subsequent risk of asthma: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"23","author":"Mu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Heart. Lung Circ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1080\/02770903.2016.1249284","article-title":"Preterm birth and low birth weight continue to increase the risk of asthma from age 7 to 43","volume":"54","author":"Matheson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Asthma"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-6386(05)80006-X","article-title":"Low birth weight and reduced renal volume in Aboriginal children","volume":"37","author":"Spencer","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Kidney Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.2307\/1602514","article-title":"Long-term developmental outcomes of low birth weight infants","volume":"5","author":"Hack","year":"1995","journal-title":"Future Child."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20173625","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-3625","article-title":"Preterm birth\/low birth weight and markers reflective of wealth in adulthood: A meta-analysis","volume":"142","author":"Bilgin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.104.6.1312","article-title":"Short-term health and economic benefits of smoking cessation: Low birth weight","volume":"104","author":"Lightwood","year":"1999","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/ntw228","article-title":"Maternal active smoking during pregnancy and low birth weight in the Americas: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"19","author":"Pereira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021932003001615","article-title":"Maternal and neonatal factors influencing premature birth and low birth weight in Australia","volume":"35","author":"Mohsin","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biosoc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.5694\/j.1326-5377.2008.tb01682.x","article-title":"Teenage smoking in pregnancy and birthweight: A population study, 2001\u20132004","volume":"188","author":"Chan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Med. J. Aust."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2013.05.005","article-title":"Parental smoking during pregnancy and its association with low birth weight, small for gestational age, and preterm birth offspring: A birth cohort study","volume":"55","author":"Ko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neonatol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"525","article-title":"Association between maternal smoking and low birth weight in Switzerland: The EDEN study","volume":"135","author":"Chiolero","year":"2005","journal-title":"Swiss Med. Wkly."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"262","article-title":"The effect of smoking cessation during pregnancy on preterm delivery and low birthweight","volume":"38","author":"Mainous","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Fam. Pract."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1007\/s10900-013-9687-8","article-title":"Estimating the impact of smoking cessation during pregnancy: The San Bernardino County experience","volume":"38","author":"Batech","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ju\u00e1rez, S.P., and Merlo, J. (2013). Revisiting the effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on offspring birthweight: A quasi-experimental sibling analysis in Sweden. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0061734"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1071\/NB07102","article-title":"Provision of smoking care in NSW hospitals: Opportunities for further enhancement","volume":"19","author":"Freund","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. S. Wales Public Health Bull."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2020, August 05). NSW Tobacco Strategy 2012\u20132021, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/tobacco\/Pages\/tobacco-strategy-1221.aspx."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"(2020, August 07). Maternal and Child Health Policies and Guidelines, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/kidsfamilies\/MCFhealth\/child\/pages\/child-and-family-health-policies-and-guidelines.aspx."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2020, August 07). HealthStats NSW, Available online: http:\/\/www.healthstats.nsw.gov.au\/Indicator\/mab_smo_cat\/mab_smo_cat."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2020, September 15). Mothers and Babies Reports, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/hsnsw\/Pages\/mothers-and-babies-reports.aspx."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0001566000006589","article-title":"Low birth weight in twins versus singletons: Separate entities and different implications for child growth and survival","volume":"30","author":"Gedda","year":"1981","journal-title":"Twin Res. Acta Genet. Med. Gemellol."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2020, November 15). Governance and Legislation for Local Health District and Speciality Network Boards, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/lhd\/boards\/Pages\/board_governance.aspx."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2020, April 15). Local Health Districts and Specialty Networks, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.nsw.gov.au\/lhd\/Pages\/default.aspx."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2020, August 25). Population by Local Health District, Available online: http:\/\/www.healthstats.nsw.gov.au\/Indicator\/dem_pop_lhnmap\/dem_pop_lhn_snap."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2020, August 25). Southern NSW Local Health District 2019\u20132020 year in Review, Available online: https:\/\/www.snswlhd.health.nsw.gov.au\/getmedia\/4ffcc029-7249-4408-ad77-d8683a15c72c\/snswlhd_2019-20_year-in-review_single-page.pdf.aspx?ext=.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2020, December 18). Maternity Services, Available online: https:\/\/www.snswlhd.health.nsw.gov.au\/our-services\/maternity-services."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-015-1725-2","article-title":"Demographic factors associated with smoking cessation during pregnancy in New South Wales, Australia, 2000\u20132011","volume":"15","author":"Passmore","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"(2020, September 05). Smoking and Pregnancy, Available online: https:\/\/www.aihw.gov.au\/getmedia\/f44090f1-1bed-42c1-b56f-dac0d3239d88\/smoking-pregnancy.pdf.aspx?inline=true."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"(2020, March 10). Socio-Economic Indexes for Areas (SEIFA), Available online: https:\/\/www.abs.gov.au\/AUSSTATS\/abs@.nsf\/allprimarymainfeatures\/8C5F5BB699A0921CCA258259000BA619?opendocument."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2020, August 02). Clinical Practice Guidelines: Pregnancy Care, Available online: https:\/\/www.health.gov.au\/resources\/pregnancy-care-guidelines."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agho, K.E., Ezeh, O.K., Ghimire, P.R., Uchechukwu, O.L., Stevens, G.J., Tannous, W.K., Fleming, C., Ogbo, F.A., and Maternal, G. (2019). Exclusive Breastfeeding Rates and Associated Factors in 13 \u201cEconomic Community of West African States\u201d(ECOWAS) Countries. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11123007"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.5806.127","article-title":"Cigarette smoking in pregnancy: Its influence on birth weight and perinatal mortality","volume":"2","author":"Butler","year":"1972","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1159\/000457123","article-title":"Smoking-induced changes in the maternal immune, endocrine, and metabolic pathways and their impact on fetal growth: A Topical Review","volume":"41","author":"Sabra","year":"2017","journal-title":"Fetal. Diagn. Ther"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1016\/S0029-7844(97)00103-8","article-title":"Smoking in pregnancy, exhaled carbon monoxide, and birth weight","volume":"89","author":"Vacek","year":"1997","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.reprotox.2014.10.002","article-title":"Effect of cigarette smoking on vascular flows in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction","volume":"50","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reprod. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2005.015065","article-title":"Parental smoking and children\u2019s respiratory health: Independent effects of prenatal and postnatal exposure","volume":"15","author":"Pattenden","year":"2006","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.152.3.7663813","article-title":"Maternal smoking during pregnancy. Effects on lung function during the first 18 months of life","volume":"152","author":"Tager","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e905","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2010-2850","article-title":"A strong synergism of low birth weight and prenatal smoking on asthma in schoolchildren","volume":"127","author":"Bjerg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wombi.2013.08.006","article-title":"\u201cNobody smokes in the house if there\u2019s a new baby in it\u201d: Aboriginal perspectives on tobacco smoking in pregnancy and in the household in regional NSW Australia","volume":"26","author":"Gould","year":"2013","journal-title":"Women Birth"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2008.01.024","article-title":"Indigenous women and smoking during pregnancy: Knowledge, cultural contexts and barriers to cessation","volume":"66","author":"Wood","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3961\/jpmph.16.087","article-title":"Distribution and determinants of low birth weight in developing countries","volume":"50","author":"Mahumud","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Prev. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwx177","article-title":"Advanced maternal age and the risk of low birth weight and preterm delivery: A within-family analysis using Finnish population registers","volume":"186","author":"Goisis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/del522","article-title":"Elevated risks of pregnancy complications and adverse outcomes with increasing maternal age","volume":"22","author":"Luke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hum. Reprod."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.109.3.399","article-title":"Delayed childbearing and its impact on population rate changes in lower birth weight, multiple birth, and preterm delivery","volume":"109","author":"Tough","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raatikainen, K., Heiskanen, N., and Heinonen, S. (2007). Under-attending free antenatal care is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. BMC Public Health, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2458-7-268"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-4755-3-8","article-title":"Late entry to antenatal care in New South Wales, Australia","volume":"3","author":"Trinh","year":"2006","journal-title":"Reprod. Health"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McDonald, S.D., Han, Z., Mulla, S., and Beyene, J. (2010). Overweight and obesity in mothers and risk of preterm birth and low birth weight infants: Systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ, 341.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.c3428"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Figueiredo, A.C., Gomes-Filho, I.S., Silva, R.B., Pereira, P.P., Da Mata, F.A., Lyrio, A.O., Souza, E.S., Cruz, S.S., and Pereira, M.G. (2018). Maternal anemia and low birth weight: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10050601"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L.W., Wu, Y., Neelakantan, N., Chong, M.F.F., Pan, A., and van Dam, R.M. (2014). Maternal caffeine intake during pregnancy is associated with risk of low birth weight: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. BMC Med., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-014-0174-6"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferdos, J., and Rahman, M.M. (2017). Maternal experience of intimate partner violence and low birth weight of children: A hospital-based study in Bangladesh. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0187138"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s12978-019-0670-4","article-title":"Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: A case-control study","volume":"16","author":"Berhanie","year":"2019","journal-title":"Reprod. Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/7\/3417\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:41:08Z","timestamp":1760161268000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/7\/3417"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18073417"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18073417","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,25]]}}}