{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,2]],"date-time":"2026-03-02T17:26:58Z","timestamp":1772472418040,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,9]],"date-time":"2021-04-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Domoic acid (DA) is a marine-based neurotoxin that, if ingested via tainted shellfish, is associated with Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP). These acute effects of elevated DA exposure in humans have been well described. In contrast, the long-term impacts of lower level, repetitive, presumably safe doses of DA (less than 20 ppm) are minimally known. Since Native Americans (NA) residing in coastal communities of the Pacific NW United States are particularly vulnerable to DA exposure, this study focuses on the long-term, 8-year memory outcome associated with their repeated dietary consumption of the neurotoxin. Measures of razor clam consumption, memory, clerical speed and accuracy, and depression were administered over eight years to 500 randomly selected adult NA men and women ages 18\u201364. Data were analyzed using GEE analyses taking into consideration the year of study, demographic factors, and instrumentation in examining the association between dietary exposure and outcomes. Findings indicated a significant but small decline in total recall memory within the context of otherwise stable clerical speed and accuracy and depression scores. There is reason to believe that a continuum of memory difficulties may be associated with DA exposure, rather than a unitary ASP syndrome.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18083955","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,9]],"date-time":"2021-04-09T10:05:21Z","timestamp":1617962721000},"page":"3955","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Long Term Memory Outcome of Repetitive, Low-Level Dietary Exposure to Domoic Acid in Native Americans"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Lynn M.","family":"Grattan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2851-1203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Kaddis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"J. Kate","family":"Tracy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9347-1984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John Glenn","family":"Morris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Emergency Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grattan, L.M., Boushey, C.J., Liang, Y., Lefebvre, K.A., Castellon, L.J., Roberts, K.A., Toben, A.C., and Morris, J.G. (2018). Repeated dietary exposure to low levels of domoic acid and problems with everyday memory: Research to public health outreach. 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