{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T04:04:52Z","timestamp":1790827492702,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,19]],"date-time":"2021-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000272","name":"National Institute for Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["16\/136\/33"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16\/136\/33"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000272","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease (NTD), causes morbidity and mortality in over 250 million people globally. And 700 million people are at risk of contracting it. It is caused by a parasite of the genus Schistosoma. Freshwater snails of the family Planorbidae are of public health significance as they are intermediate hosts of these highly infective flukes. Accurate diagnostic techniques to detect schistosome infections in intermediate host snails (IHS) and environmental surveillance are needed to institute measures for the interruption of transmission and eventual elimination. We carried out a systematic review of the literature to assess advantages and limitations of different diagnostic techniques for detecting schistosome infections in snails. Literature from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed databases from 2008 to 2020 were searched using combinations of predefined search terms with Boolean operators. The studies revealed that conventional diagnostics are widely used, although they are labor-intensive, have low specificity and sensitivity levels, and cannot detect prepatent infections. Whereas more advanced techniques such as immunological, nucleic-acid amplification, and eDNA diagnostics have high sensitivity and specificity levels, they are costly, hence, not suitable for field applications and large-scale surveys. Our review highlights the importance of designing and developing innovative diagnostics that are high in specificity and sensitivity as well as affordable and technically feasible for use in field laboratories and for large-scale surveys.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18105403","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]],"date-time":"2021-05-18T23:34:46Z","timestamp":1621380886000},"page":"5403","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Challenges and Opportunities Presented by Current Techniques for Detecting Schistosome Infections in Intermediate Host Snails: A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1581-6788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Onyekachi Esther","family":"Nwoko","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Public Health Medicine, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9902-865X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John J. O.","family":"Mogaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Public Health Medicine, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moses John","family":"Chimbari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Public Health Medicine, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S43","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182006001806","article-title":"Vaccines against the zoonotic trematodes Schistosoma japonicum, Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica","volume":"133","author":"McManus","year":"2006","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(06)70521-7","article-title":"Schistosomiasis and water resources development: Systematic review, meta-analysis, and estimates of people at risk","volume":"6","author":"Steinmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. 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