{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T04:54:38Z","timestamp":1762145678400,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]],"date-time":"2021-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extensive scholarship has demonstrated that communities of color, low-income communities, and Indigenous communities face greater environmental and health hazards compared to communities with more White or affluent people. Low-income, Indigenous, Black, and\/or other populations of color are also more likely to lack access to health care facilities, healthy food, and adequate formal education opportunities. Despite the mountains of evidence that demonstrate the existence and significance of the elevated toxic social and environmental exposures experienced by these communities, the inclusion of these factors into chemical evaluations has been scarce. In this paper, we demonstrate a process built with publicly available data and simple geospatial techniques that could be utilized by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to incorporate cumulative approaches into risk assessments under the Toxic Substances Control Act. The use of these approaches, particularly as they relate to identifying potentially exposed and susceptible subpopulations, would help USEPA develop appropriate risk estimates and mitigation strategies to protect disproportionately burdened populations from the adverse effects of chemical exposures. By utilizing such approaches to inform risk evaluation and mitigation, USEPA can identify and protect those most burdened and impacted by toxic chemicals, and finally begin to close the gap of environmental health inequities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18116002","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]],"date-time":"2021-06-03T10:59:51Z","timestamp":1622717991000},"page":"6002","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["A Cumulative Framework for Identifying Overburdened Populations under the Toxic Substances Control Act: Formaldehyde Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Kristi","family":"Pullen Fedinick","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ilch","family":"Yiliqi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yukyan","family":"Lam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Lennett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Veena","family":"Singla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Miriam","family":"Rotkin-Ellman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1279-9510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Sass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY 10011, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-069X-12-96","article-title":"Spatial Disparity in the Distribution of Superfund Sites in South Carolina: An Ecological Study","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1080\/08941920.2011.566600","article-title":"Environmental Justice Implications of Brownfield Redevelopment in the United States","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Soc. Nat. Resour."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"357","article-title":"Urban Air Pollution and Health Inequities: A Workshop Report","volume":"109","author":"Samet","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S649","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.131383","article-title":"Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Residential Proximity to Polluting Industrial Facilities: Evidence from the Americans\u2019 Changing Lives Study","volume":"99","author":"Mohai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"White, R. (2018). Life at the Fenceline\u2014English, Environmental Justice Health Alliance for Chemical Policy Reform."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Davis, H.T., Aelion, C.M., Liu, J., Burch, J.B., Cai, B., and McDermott, S. (2017). Potential Sources and Racial Disparities in the Residential Distribution of Soil Arsenic and Lead among Pregnant Women. Sci. Total Environ., 23."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.04.017","article-title":"Review of Take-Home Pesticide Exposure Pathway in Children Living in Agricultural Areas","volume":"156","author":"Hyland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2017.07.020","article-title":"The Environmental Injustice of Beauty: Framing Chemical Exposures from Beauty Products as a Health Disparities Concern","volume":"6","author":"Zota","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2016.1185","article-title":"Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Frequency of Workplace Injuries and Prevalence of Work-Related Disability","volume":"36","author":"Seabury","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Pullen Fedinick, K., Taylor, S., Roberts, M., Moore, R., and Olson, E. (2019). Watered Down Justice, Natural Resources Defense Council."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0901568","article-title":"Comparison of Current-Use Pesticide and Other Toxicant Urinary Metabolite Levels among Pregnant Women in the CHAMACOS Cohort and NHANES","volume":"118","author":"Castorina","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2015.302643","article-title":"Racial\/Ethnic Disparities in Cumulative Environmental Health Impacts in California: Evidence from a Statewide Environmental Justice Screening Tool (CalEnviroScreen 1.1)","volume":"105","author":"Cushing","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.1038\/jes.2017.15","article-title":"Associations between Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Chemical Concentrations Contributing to Cumulative Exposures in the United States","volume":"27","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bullard, R.D., Mohai, P., Saha, R., and Wright, B. (2007). Toxic Wastes and Race at Twenty, 1987\u20132007, United Church of Christ Justice and Witness Ministries. A Report Prepared for the United Church of Christ Justice and Witness Ministries."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125011","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/10\/12\/125011","article-title":"Which Came First, People or Pollution? A Review of Theory and Evidence from Longitudinal Environmental Justice Studies","volume":"10","author":"Mohai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Res Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Chaves, K., Wilson, N., Gray, D., Barton, B., Bonnett, D., and Azam, I. (2021, June 02). 2018 National Healthcare Quality and Disparities Report, Available online: https:\/\/www.ahrq.gov\/research\/findings\/nhqrdr\/nhqdr18\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.3122\/jabfm.2014.02.130246","article-title":"Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Access to Primary Care Among People with Chronic Conditions","volume":"27","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Board. Fem. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1017\/S1368980007000079","article-title":"Disparities in the Availability of Fruits and Vegetables between Racially Segregated Urban Neighbourhoods","volume":"10","author":"Morland","year":"2007","journal-title":"Public Health Nutr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2010.04.013","article-title":"Disparities and Access to Healthy Food in the United States: A Review of Food Deserts Literature","volume":"16","author":"Walker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2012.300865","article-title":"Neighborhood Disparities in Access to Healthy Foods and Their Effects on Environmental Justice","volume":"102","author":"Hilmers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edley, C., Koenig, J., Nielsen, N., and Citro, C. (2019). Monitoring Educational Equity, National Academies Press.","DOI":"10.17226\/25389"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinstein, J.N., Geller, A., Negussie, Y., Baciu, A., and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.) (2017). Communities in Action: Pathways to Health Equity, The National Academies Press.","DOI":"10.17226\/24624"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.2307\/3348839","article-title":"Social Class, Life Expectancy and Overall Mortality","volume":"45","author":"Antonovsky","year":"1967","journal-title":"Milbank Mem. Fund. Q."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.93.2.272","article-title":"The Health and Physique of the Negro American","volume":"93","author":"DuBois","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.27.8.759","article-title":"How Much Control of Tuberculosis?","volume":"27","author":"Frost","year":"1937","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health Nations Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S28","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146510383498","article-title":"Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Health Inequalities: Theory, Evidence, and Policy Implications","volume":"51","author":"Phelan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph9041077","article-title":"Integrating Susceptibility into Environmental Policy: An Analysis of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Lead","volume":"9","author":"Chari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"National Research Council (2009). Science and Decisions: Advancing Risk Assessment, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Environmental Protection Agency (2003). Framework for Cumulative Risk Assessment."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"United States, Executive Office of the President [Joseph Biden] (2021). Executive Order 13990 of 20 January 2021 Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle the Climate Crisis."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krimsky, S. (2017). The Unsteady State and Inertia of Chemical Regulation under the US Toxic Substances Control Act. PLoS Biol., 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2002404"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"EPA (2016). Toxic Substances Control Act."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/S1382-6689(97)10020-5","article-title":"Sociodemographic Aspects of Human Susceptibility to Toxic Chemicals: Do Class and Race Matter for Realistic Risk Assessment?","volume":"9","author":"Sexton","year":"1997","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Payne-Sturges, D., Scammell, M., Levy, J., Cory-Slechta, D., Symanski, E., Carr Shmool, J., Laumbach, R., Linder, S., and Clougherty, J. (2018). Methods for Evaluating the Combined Effects of Chemical and Nonchemical Exposures for Cumulative Environmental Health Risk Assessment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15122797"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"United States Environmental Protection Agency (2020). Final Scope of the Risk Evaluation for Formaldehyde CASRN 50-00-0."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2010). Addendum to the Toxicological Profile for Formaldehyde."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2021, April 27). TRI Form R & A Download, Available online: https:\/\/enviro.epa.gov\/facts\/tri\/form_ra_download.html?."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"USEPA Office of Research and Development (2021, April 27). Chemical and Products Database (CPDat), Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/chemical-research\/chemical-and-products-database-cpdat."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2020, May 16). Chemical Search|IRIS|US USEPA, Available online: https:\/\/cfpub.epa.gov\/ncea\/iris\/search\/index.cfm."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2021, April 26). Chemicals in Cosmetics\u2014California Health and Human Services Open Data Portal, Available online: https:\/\/data.chhs.ca.gov\/dataset\/chemicals-in-cosmetics."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(2020, May 23). Mobile Home Parks\u2014Data.gov, Available online: https:\/\/catalog.data.gov\/dataset\/mobile-home-parks."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2021, April 27). CDC SVI Data and Documentation Download|Place and Health|ATSDR, Available online: https:\/\/www.atsdr.cdc.gov\/placeandhealth\/svi\/data_documentation_download.html."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"US USEPA (2021, May 26). National Air Toxics Assessment, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/national-air-toxics-assessment."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2010). WHO Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Selected Pollutants, WHO."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Academy of Pediatrics (1986). Involuntary Smoking\u2014A Hazard to Children. Pediatrics, 77, 755.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.77.5.755"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1136\/tc.2005.011288","article-title":"Philip Morris Toxicological Experiments with Fresh Sidestream Smoke: More Toxic than Mainstream Smoke","volume":"14","author":"Schick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"209","article-title":"Chamber Assessment of Formaldehyde and VOC Emissions from Wood-Based Panels","volume":"9","author":"Brown","year":"1999","journal-title":"Indoor Air-Int. J. Indoor Air Qual. Clim."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"27","article-title":"Formaldehyde Emission from Particleboard and Plywood Paneling\u2014Measurement, Mechanism, and Product Standards","volume":"33","author":"Myers","year":"1983","journal-title":"For. Prod. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1017\/S0098858800009138","article-title":"Urea Formaldehyde Foam Insulation-Defusing A Timebomb","volume":"11","author":"Gox","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am. J. Law Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1080\/00022470.1982.10465521","article-title":"Formaldehyde Release from Simulated Wall Panels Insulated with Urea-Formaldehyde Foam Insulation","volume":"32","author":"Hawthorne","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1021\/es980592+","article-title":"Emission Rates of Formaldehyde from Materials and Consumer Products Found in California Homes","volume":"33","author":"Kelly","year":"1999","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2371","DOI":"10.1021\/es00036a006","article-title":"Indoor Chemistry: Ozone, Volatile Organic Compounds, and Carpets","volume":"26","author":"Weschler","year":"1992","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2006.02.007","article-title":"Housing Characteristics and Indoor Concentrations of Nitrogen Dioxide and Formaldehyde in Quebec City, Canada","volume":"102","author":"Gilbert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0536.2009.01582.x","article-title":"Formaldehyde-Releasers: Relationship to Formaldehyde Contact Allergy. Contact Allergy to Formaldehyde and Inventory of Formaldehyde-Releasers","volume":"61","author":"Flyvholm","year":"2009","journal-title":"Contact Dermat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S88","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2011.300268","article-title":"Expanding the Scope of Environmental Risk Assessment to Better Include Differential Vulnerability and Susceptibility","volume":"101","author":"Schwartz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"National Research Council (U.S.), and Committee on the Health Risks of Phthalates (2008). Phthalates and Cumulative Risk Assessment: The Tasks Ahead, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"NTP (National Toxicology Program) (2016). Report on Carcinogens."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Committee to Review Advances Made to the IRIS Process, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Division on Earth and Life Studies, and National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2018). Progress toward Transforming the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) Program: A 2018 Evaluation, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"USEPA Office of Research and Development (2021, April 27). Basic Information about the Integrated Risk Information System, Available online: https:\/\/www.epa.gov\/iris\/basic-information-about-integrated-risk-information-system."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"United States Government Accountability Office (2020). Chemical Assessments: Annual USEPA Survey Inconsistent with Leading Practices in Program Management, GAO-21-156."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2021.115444","article-title":"Health Disparities: Intracellular Consequences of Social Determinants of Health","volume":"416","author":"Emeny","year":"2021","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1816","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302130","article-title":"Epigenome: Biosensor of Cumulative Exposure to Chemical and Nonchemical Stressors Related to Environmental Justice","volume":"104","author":"Olden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-060116-053403","article-title":"Stress-Related Biosocial Mechanisms of Discrimination and African American Health Inequities","volume":"44","author":"Goosby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1111\/1475-6773.13222","article-title":"Understanding How Discrimination Can Affect Health","volume":"54","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax9553","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax9553","article-title":"Social Determinants of Health and Survival in Humans and Other Animals","volume":"368","author":"Burger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Children\u2019s Health Protection Advisory Committee (2021). Protecting Children\u2019s Health under Amended TSCA: Chemical Prioritization."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"14","article-title":"A Game Changer in the Making? Lessons from States Advancing Environmental Justice through Mapping and Cumulative Impact Strategies","volume":"50","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Law Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Baptista, A.I. (2019). Local Policies for Environmental Justice: A National Scan, Tishman Environment and Design Center at the New School."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Singleton, T., and Weinberg, L. (2020). S232 2R SCS SCS."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lam, J., Koustas, E., Sutton, P., Padula, A.M., Cabana, M.D., Vesterinen, H., Griffiths, C., Dickie, M., Daniels, N., and Whitaker, E. (2021). Exposure to Formaldehyde and Asthma Outcomes: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Economic Assessment. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248258"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/11\/6002\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:10:29Z","timestamp":1760163029000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/11\/6002"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18116002"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18116002","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]]}}}