{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T21:39:47Z","timestamp":1788989987657,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]],"date-time":"2021-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1622678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Province of Utrecht","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Air pollution, especially fine particulate matter (PM2.5), is a major environmental risk factor for human health in Europe. Monitoring of air quality takes place using expensive reference stations. Low-cost sensors are a promising addition to this official monitoring network as they add spatial and temporal resolution at low cost. Moreover, low-cost sensors might allow for better characterization of personal exposure to PM2.5. In this study, we use 500 dust (PM2.5) sensors mounted on bicycles to estimate typical PM2.5 levels to which cyclists are exposed in the province of Utrecht, the Netherlands, in the year 2020. We use co-located sensors at reference stations to calibrate and validate the mobile sensor data. We estimate that the average exposure to traffic related PM2.5, on top of background concentrations, is approximately 2 \u03bcg\/m3. Our results suggest that cyclists close to major roads have a small, but consistently higher exposure to PM2.5 compared to routes with less traffic. The results allow for a detailed spatial representation of PM2.5 concentrations and show that choosing a different cycle route might lead to a lower exposure to PM2.5. Finally, we conclude that the use of mobile, low-cost sensors is a promising method to estimate exposure to air pollution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18116007","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]],"date-time":"2021-06-03T10:59:51Z","timestamp":1622717991000},"page":"6007","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Assessment of PM2.5 Exposure during Cycle Trips in The Netherlands Using Low-Cost Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Joost","family":"Wesseling","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wouter","family":"Hendricx","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7352-9317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henri","family":"de Ruiter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sjoerd","family":"van Ratingen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Derko","family":"Drukker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maaike","family":"Huitema","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Province of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80300, 3508 TH Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claar","family":"Schouwenaar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Province of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80300, 3508 TH Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Geert","family":"Janssen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Province of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80300, 3508 TH Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"van Aken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Province of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80300, 3508 TH Utrecht, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Smeenk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SODAQ, Bussumerstraat 34, 1211 BL Hilversum, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arjen","family":"Hof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Civity B.V., Handelsweg 6, 3707 NH Zeist, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erik","family":"Tielemans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), P.O. Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"EEA (2020). Air Quality in Europe\u20142020 Report, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1080\/02786820500191348","article-title":"Airborne Particulate Matter and Human Health: A Review","volume":"39","author":"Davidson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aerosol. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2014.10.005","article-title":"A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter","volume":"74","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"European Commission (2008). Directive 2008\/50\/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on Ambient air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe, European Commission."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WHO (2021, April 09). Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"LML (2021, April 09). Luchtmeetnet. Available online: www.luchtmeetnet.nl."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"NSL (2021, April 09). Monitoring NSL. Available online: https:\/\/nsl-monitoring.nl\/."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"RIVM (2020). Monitoringsrapportage NSL 2020: Stand van zaken Nationaal Samenwerkingsprogramma Luchtkwaliteit."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Environment, R. (2021, April 09). Dutch Policy and Regulations for Air Quality. Available online: https:\/\/rwsenvironment.eu\/subjects\/air\/air-quality\/."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2012.11.060","article-title":"The use of electrochemical sensors for monitoring urban air quality in low-cost, high-density networks","volume":"70","author":"Mead","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.09.059","article-title":"On the feasibility of measuring urban air pollution by wireless distributed sensor networks","volume":"502","author":"Moltchanov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schade, S., Herding, W., Fellermann, A., and Kotsev, A. (2019). Joint Statement on new opportunities for air quality sensing - lower-cost sensors for public authorities and citizen science initiatives. Res. Ideas Outcomes, 5.","DOI":"10.3897\/rio.5.e34059"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2017.10.019","article-title":"Localized real-time information on outdoor air quality at kindergartens in Oslo, Norway using low-cost sensor nodes","volume":"165","author":"Castell","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1145\/2808198","article-title":"Launching an Efficient Participatory Sensing Campaign: A Smart Mobile Device-Based Approach","volume":"12","author":"Hao","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Multimed. Comput. Commun. Appl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wesseling, J., de Ruiter, H., Blokhuis, C., Drukker, D., Weijers, E., Volten, H., Vonk, J., Gast, L., Voogt, M., and Zandveld, P. (2019). Development and Implementation of a Platform for Public Information on Air Quality, Sensor Measurements, and Citizen Science. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10080445"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karagulian, F., Barbiere, M., Kotsev, A., Spinelle, L., Gerboles, M., Lagler, F., Redon, N., Crunaire, S., and Borowiak, A. (2019). Review of the Performance of Low-Cost Sensors for Air Quality Monitoring. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10090506"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borghi, F., Spinazz\u00e8, A., Rovelli, S., Campagnolo, D., Del Buono, L., Cattaneo, A., and Cavallo, D.M. (2017). Miniaturized Monitors for Assessment of Exposure to Air Pollutants: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14080909"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfano, B., Barretta, L., Del Giudice, A., De Vito, S., Di Francia, G., Esposito, E., Formisano, F., Massera, E., Miglietta, M.L., and Polichetti, T. (2020). A Review of Low-Cost Particulate Matter Sensors from the Developers\u2019 Perspectives. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20236819"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2012.10.098","article-title":"Quantifying human exposure to air pollution\u2014Moving from static monitoring to spatio-temporally resolved personal exposure assessment","volume":"443","author":"Steinle","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2021, April 09). Sensor Community. Available online: https:\/\/sensor.community\/en."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1003369","article-title":"Black carbon as an additional indicator of the adverse health effects of airborne particles compared with PM10 and PM2. 5","volume":"119","author":"Janssen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Harms, L., and Kansen, M. (2018). Cycling facts. Netherlands Institute for Transport Policy Analysis (KiM), Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"BOVAG, R. (2020). Mobiliteit in Cijfers Tweewielers 2020, Foundation Academy of Amsterdam."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2010.06.022","article-title":"Comparison of short-term exposure to particle number, PM10 and soot concentrations on three (sub) urban locations","volume":"408","author":"Boogaard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2007.04.020","article-title":"Spatial variation of particle number and mass over four European cities","volume":"41","author":"Puustinen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1185","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(96)00291-9","article-title":"Mass concentration and elemental composition of airborne particulate matter at street and background locations","volume":"31","author":"Janssen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2013.01.032","article-title":"Source contributions to PM2.5 and PM10 at an urban background and a street location","volume":"71","author":"Keuken","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"SODAQ (2021, May 25). Build Your Own SODAQ Sniffer Bike!. Available online: https:\/\/shop.sodaq.com\/blogs\/sodaq-insights\/build-your-own-sniffer-bike\/."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"(2021, May 25). MetOne. Available online: https:\/\/metone.com\/products\/bam-1020\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2021, May 25). Sensirion. Available online: https:\/\/www.sensirion.com\/en\/environmental-sensors\/particulate-matter-sensors-pm25\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2413","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-13-2413-2020","article-title":"Laboratory evaluation of particle-size selectivity of optical low-cost particulate matter sensors","volume":"13","author":"Kuula","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trd.2019.10.019","article-title":"The use of low-cost sensors for air quality analysis in road intersections","volume":"77","author":"Brzozowski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22079","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-79064-w","article-title":"Spatial calibration and PM2.5 mapping of low-cost air quality sensors","volume":"10","author":"Chu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaerosci.2017.05.011","article-title":"Performance calibration of low-cost and portable particular matter (PM) sensors","volume":"112","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Aerosol Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13638","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2020.3010316","article-title":"Intelligent Calibration and Virtual Sensing for Integrated Low-Cost Air Quality Sensors","volume":"20","author":"Zaidan","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.10.006","article-title":"Mobile monitoring of air pollution using low cost sensors to visualize spatio-temporal variation of pollutants at urban hotspots","volume":"44","author":"SM","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.02.179","article-title":"Evaluating air quality by combining stationary, smart mobile pollution monitoring and data-driven modelling","volume":"221","author":"Dupont","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2020.118158","article-title":"Improvements in air quality in the Netherlands during the corona lockdown based on observations and model simulations","volume":"247","author":"Velders","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/11\/6007\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:10:30Z","timestamp":1760163030000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/11\/6007"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18116007"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18116007","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]]}}}