{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T03:22:34Z","timestamp":1790824954839,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]],"date-time":"2021-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624147200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Designing emotional intelligence training programs requires first testing the effectiveness of techniques targeting its main dimensions. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a brief slow-paced breathing (SPB) exercise on psychophysiological variables linked to emotion regulation, namely cardiac vagal activity (CVA), as well as perceived stress intensity, emotional arousal, and emotional valence. A total of 61 participants completed a 5-min SPB exercise and a control condition of a 5-min rest measurement. CVA was indexed with the root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD). Participants were also asked to rate their perceived stress intensity, emotional arousal, and emotional valence. Results showed that CVA was higher during SPB in comparison to the control condition. Contrary to our hypothesis, perceived stress intensity and emotional arousal increased after SPB, and perceived emotional valence was less positive after SPB. This could be explained by experiencing dyspnea (i.e., breathing discomfort), and the need to get acclimatized to SPB. Consequently, we may conclude that although physiological benefits of SPB on CVA are immediate, training may be required in order to perceive psychological benefits.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18126630","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]],"date-time":"2021-06-20T22:00:02Z","timestamp":1624226402000},"page":"6630","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Emotional Intelligence Training: Influence of a Brief Slow-Paced Breathing Exercise on Psychophysiological Variables Linked to Emotion Regulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Min","family":"You","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UFR Psychologie, EA3918 CERREV, Normandie Universit\u00e9, 14000 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4842-6548","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sylvain","family":"Laborde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Performance Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University, Am Sportpark M\u00fcngersdorf 6, 50937 Cologne, Germany"},{"name":"UFR STAPS, EA 4260 CESAMS, Normandie Universit\u00e9, 14000 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nina","family":"Zammit","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Performance Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University, Am Sportpark M\u00fcngersdorf 6, 50937 Cologne, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ma\u0161a","family":"Iskra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Performance Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University, Am Sportpark M\u00fcngersdorf 6, 50937 Cologne, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Uirassu","family":"Borges","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Performance Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University, Am Sportpark M\u00fcngersdorf 6, 50937 Cologne, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Health & Social Psychology, Institute of Psychology, German Sport University, 50937 Cologne, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fabrice","family":"Dosseville","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UMR-S 1075 COMETE, Normandie Universit\u00e9, 14000 Caen, France"},{"name":"INSERM, UMR-S 1075 COMETE, 14000 Caen, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1573-7000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert S.","family":"Vaughan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Language, and Psychology, York St John University, York YO31 7EX, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz, M., and Robazza, C. (2021). Feelings in Sport\u2014Theory, Research, and Practical Implications for Performance and Well-Being, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003052012"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1123\/tsp.14.3.229","article-title":"How emotions influence performance in competitive sports","volume":"14","author":"Lazarus","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sport Psychol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., Allen, M.S., Katschak, K., Mattonet, K., and Lachner, N. (2019). Trait personality in sport and exercise psychology: A mapping review and research agenda. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 1\u201316.","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2019.1570536"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petrides, K.V. (2009). Technical Manual for the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue), London Psychometric Laboratory.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-88370-0_5"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brasseur, S., Gr\u00e9goire, J., Bourdu, R., and Mikolajczak, M. (2013). The Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC): Development and validation of a self-reported measure that fits dimensions of emotional competence theory. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062635"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"862","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12510","article-title":"Emotional intelligence in sport and exercise: A systematic review","volume":"26","author":"Laborde","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopp, A., and Jekauc, D. (2018). The influence of emotional intelligence on performance in competitive sports: A meta-analytical investigation. Sports, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/sports6040175"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"25","article-title":"Going beyond the ability-trait debate: The three-level model of emotional intelligence an unifying view: The three-level model of EI","volume":"5","author":"Mikolajczak","year":"2009","journal-title":"E J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2010.06.031","article-title":"Trait emotional intelligence and preference for intuition and deliberation: Respective influence on academic performance","volume":"49","author":"Laborde","year":"2010","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2011.566367","article-title":"Culture, individual differences, and situation: Influence on coping in French and Chinese table tennis players","volume":"12","author":"Laborde","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2014.05.001","article-title":"Validity of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire in sports and its links with performance satisfaction","volume":"15","author":"Laborde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"643","article-title":"Relationship between emotional intelligence and anxiety in a futsal club from Madrid","volume":"39","author":"Giraldez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Retos"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00130","article-title":"Anxiety and emotional intelligence: Comparisons between combat sports, gender and levels using the trait meta-mood scale and the inventory of situations and anxiety response","volume":"11","author":"Fernandez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"42","article-title":"Relationship between emotional intelligence and anxiety levels in athletes","volume":"12","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Sport Health Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2011.03.003","article-title":"Trait emotional intelligence in sports: A protective role against stress through heart rate variability?","volume":"51","author":"Laborde","year":"2011","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2014.12.003","article-title":"The contribution of coping-related variables and heart rate variability to visual search performance under pressure","volume":"139","author":"Laborde","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2013.09.013","article-title":"The role of trait emotional intelligence in emotion regulation and performance under pressure","volume":"57","author":"Laborde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2011.03.001","article-title":"Emotions and trait emotional intelligence among ultra-endurance runners","volume":"14","author":"Lane","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Sci. Med. Sport"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaughan, R., Hagyard, J.D., Brimmell, J., and Edwards, E.J. (2020). The effect of trait emotional intelligence on working memory across athletic expertise. J. Sports Sci., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1080\/02640414.2020.1840039"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/17461391.2018.1510037","article-title":"The effect of athletic expertise and trait emotional intelligence on decision-making","volume":"19","author":"Vaughan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200305390","article-title":"The relationship between emotional intelligence and performance among college baseball players","volume":"15","author":"Zizzi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1037\/cjbs2006001","article-title":"Emotional intelligence in the national hockey league","volume":"38","author":"Perlini","year":"2006","journal-title":"Can. J. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2593","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.02593","article-title":"Commentary: Emotional intelligence impact on half marathon finish times","volume":"9","author":"Laborde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1037\/a0023047","article-title":"Emotional plasticity: Conditions and effects of improving emotional competence in adulthood","volume":"96","author":"Kotsou","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021554","article-title":"Increasing emotional competence improves psychological and physical well-being, social relationships, and employability","volume":"11","author":"Nelis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kotsou, I., Mikolajczak, M., Heeren, A., Gr\u00e9goire, J., and Leys, C. (2019). Improving emotional intelligence: A systematic review of existing work and future challenges. Emot. Rev.","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073917735902"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073917708613","article-title":"How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: A meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Hodzic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emot. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1027\/1614-0001\/a000201","article-title":"Emotional intelligence training in team sports","volume":"37","author":"Campo","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01939","article-title":"Emotional intelligence (EI) training adapted to the international preparation constraints in rugby: Influence of EI trainer status on EI training effectiveness","volume":"10","author":"Campo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00fctz, K., Rahders, F., Mosley, E., and Laborde, S. (2020). Emotional competences training in equestrian sport\u2014A preliminary study. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 1\u201313.","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2020.1819367"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1260\/1747-9541.6.1.69","article-title":"Increasing emotional intelligence in cricketers: An intervention study","volume":"6","author":"Crombie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1080\/17521882.2014.939679","article-title":"Using emotional intelligence in coaching high-performance athletes: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"7","author":"Barlow","year":"2014","journal-title":"Coach. Int. J. Theory Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Sherwood, L. (2006). Fundamentals of Physiology: A Human Perspective, Brooks\/Cole. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Tortora, G.J., and Derrickson, B.H. (2014). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1183\/20734735.009817","article-title":"The physiological effects of slow breathing in the healthy human","volume":"13","author":"Russo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Breathe"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00353","article-title":"How breath-control can change your life: A systematic review on psycho-physiological correlates of slow breathing","volume":"12","author":"Zaccaro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Schwartz, M., and Andrasik, F. (2017). Biofeedback, Fourth Edition: A Practitioner\u2019s Guide, The Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.01176","article-title":"Hypothesis: Pulmonary afferent activity patterns during slow, deep breathing contribute to the neural induction of physiological relaxation","volume":"10","author":"Noble","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00397","article-title":"Breath of life: The respiratory vagal stimulation model of contemplative activity","volume":"12","author":"Gerritsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2017.12.017","article-title":"How heart rate variability affects emotion regulation brain networks","volume":"19","author":"Mather","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehrer, P.M., and Gevirtz, R. (2014). Heart rate variability biofeedback: How and why does it work?. Front. Psychol., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00756"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaffer, F., and Meehan, Z.M. (2020). A practical guide to resonance frequency assessment for heart rate variability biofeedback. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.570400"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brodal, P. (2016). The Central Nervous System\u2014Structure and Function, Oxford University Press. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780190228958.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.10.3.229","article-title":"Heart rate variability as an index of regulated emotional responding","volume":"10","author":"Appelhans","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0327(00)00338-4","article-title":"A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation","volume":"61","author":"Thayer","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s12160-009-9101-z","article-title":"Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: The neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health","volume":"37","author":"Thayer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.02.003","article-title":"The hierarchical basis of neurovisceral integration","volume":"75","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(12)62272-1","article-title":"The central autonomic network: Functional organization, dysfunction, and perspective","volume":"68","author":"Benarroch","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02140.x","article-title":"Heart rate variability: Origins, methods, and interpretive caveats","volume":"34","author":"Berntson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a014868","article-title":"Heart rate variability. Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Task force of the european society of cardiology and the north american society of pacing and electrophysiology","volume":"17","author":"Malik","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"213","article-title":"Heart rate variability and cardiac vagal tone in psychophysiological research\u2014Recommendations for experiment planning, data analysis, and data reporting","volume":"8","author":"Laborde","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2281.2001.00337.x","article-title":"Time domain, geometrical and frequency domain analysis of cardiac vagal outflow: Effects of various respiratory patterns","volume":"21","author":"Penttila","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2018.e01002","article-title":"A unifying conceptual framework of factors associated to cardiac vagal control","volume":"4","author":"Laborde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pbr.2018.09.002","article-title":"Enhancing cardiac vagal activity: Factors of interest for sport psychology","volume":"240","author":"Laborde","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., Lentes, T., Hosang, T.J., Borges, U., Mosley, E., and Dosseville, F. (2019). Influence of slow-paced breathing on inhibition after physical exertion. Front. Psychol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2019.01923"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., Hosang, T., Mosley, E., and Dosseville, F. (2019). Influence of a 30-day slow paced breathing intervention compared to social media use on subjective sleep quality and cardiac vagal activity. J. Clin. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm8020193"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., Allen, M., Borges, U., Hosang, T., Furley, P., Mosley, E., and Dosseville, F. (2021). The influence of slow-paced breathing on executive function. J. Psychophysiol.","DOI":"10.1027\/0269-8803\/a000279"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"You, M., Laborde, S., Salvotti, C., Zammit, N., Mosley, E., and Dosseville, F. (2021). Influence of a single slow-paced breathing session on cardiac vagal activity in athletes. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-020-00467-x"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoffmann, S., Jendreizik, L., Ettinger, U., and Laborde, S. (2019). Keeping the pace: The effect of slow-paced breathing on error monitoring. Int. J. Psychophysiol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2019.10.001"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Lazarus, R.S., and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping, Springer."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1037\/1089-2680.2.3.271","article-title":"The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review","volume":"2","author":"Gross","year":"1998","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1017\/S0048577201393198","article-title":"Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences","volume":"39","author":"Gross","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tenenbaum, G., and Eklund, R. (2007). Emotions in sport: Current issues and perspectives. Handbook of Sport Psychology, Wiley. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118270011"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Fronso, S., Costa, S., Montesano, C., Di Gruttola, F., Ciofi, E.G., Morgilli, L., Robazza, C., and Bertollo, M. (2020). The effects of COVID-19 pandemic on perceived stress and psychobiosocial states in Italian athletes. Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol., 1\u201313.","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2020.1802612"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"You, M., Laborde, S., Dosseville, F., Salinas, A., and Allen, M.S. (2020). Associations of chronotype, Big Five, and emotional competences with perceived stress in university students. Chronobiol. Int., 1090\u20131098.","DOI":"10.1080\/07420528.2020.1752705"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"821","article-title":"Work-related stress risk and preventive measures of mental disorders in the medical environment: An umbrella review","volume":"24","author":"Buomprisco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-014-9253-x","article-title":"Inhalation\/Exhalation ratio modulates the effect of slow breathing on heart rate variability and relaxation","volume":"39","author":"Verstappen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(85)90026-6","article-title":"Respiratory control as a treatment for panic attacks","volume":"16","author":"Clark","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.154.2.232","article-title":"Respiratory control: Its contribution to the treatment of panic attacks. A controlled study","volume":"154","author":"Hibbert","year":"1989","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry J. Ment. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2011.01344.x","article-title":"Positive emotion reduces dyspnea during slow paced breathing","volume":"49","author":"Allen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Thoracic Society (1999). Dyspnea. Mechanisms, assessment, and management: A consensus statement. American Thoracic Society. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 159, 321\u2013340.","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.159.1.ats898"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"805","article-title":"Considerations in the assessment of heart rate variability in biobehavioral research","volume":"5","author":"Quintana","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1111\/jir.12350","article-title":"The effect of slow-paced breathing on stress management in adolescents with intellectual disability","volume":"61","author":"Laborde","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intellect. Disabil. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1681.2000.03306.x","article-title":"Relative timing of inspiration and expiration affects respiratory sinus arrhythmia","volume":"27","author":"Moser","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1093\/occmed\/kqr037","article-title":"Validity of occupational stress assessment using a visual analogue scale","volume":"61","author":"Lesage","year":"2011","journal-title":"Occup. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1093\/occmed\/kqs140","article-title":"Clinical stress assessment using a visual analogue scale","volume":"62","author":"Lesage","year":"2012","journal-title":"Occup. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","article-title":"Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential","volume":"25","author":"Bradley","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32","DOI":"10.5301\/heartint.5000232","article-title":"Influence diagram of physiological and environmental factors affecting heart rate variability: An extended literature overview","volume":"11","author":"Fatisson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Heart Int."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2006.00415.x","article-title":"The impact of emotions on the sensory and affective dimension of perceived dyspnea","volume":"43","author":"Mertz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szulczewski, M.T. (2019). Training of paced breathing at 0.1 Hz improves CO2 homeostasis and relaxation during a paced breathing task. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0218550"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-011-9178-6","article-title":"Hypoventilation training for asthma: A case illustration","volume":"37","author":"Jeter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2014.00073","article-title":"Monitoring training status with HR measures: Do all roads lead to Rome?","volume":"5","author":"Buchheit","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehrer, P.M., Kaur, K., Sharma, A., Shah, K., Huseby, R., Bhavsar, J., and Zhang, Y. (2020). Heart rate variability biofeedback improves emotional and physical health and performance: A systematic review and meta analysis. Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-020-09466-z"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jimenez Morgan, S., and Molina Mora, J.A. (2017). Effect of heart rate variability biofeedback on sport performance, a systematic review. Appl. Psychophysiol. Biofeedback.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10484-017-9364-2"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.2478\/hukin-2020-0004","article-title":"Can heart rate variability biofeedback improve athletic performance? A systematic review","volume":"73","author":"Pagaduan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hum. Kinet."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wells, R., Outhred, T., Heathers, J.A., Quintana, D.S., and Kemp, A.H. (2012). Matter over mind: A randomised-controlled trial of single-session biofeedback training on performance anxiety and heart rate variability in musicians. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0046597"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., and Mosley, E. (2016). Commentary: Heart rate variability and self-control\u2014A meta-analysis. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00653"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zahn, D., Wenzel, M., and Kubiak, T. (2016). Response: Commentary: Heart rate variability and self-control\u2014A meta-analysis. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01070"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2015.12.007","article-title":"Heart rate variability and self-control\u2014A meta-analysis","volume":"115","author":"Zahn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., Mosley, E., and Mertgen, A. (2018). Vagal tank theory: The three Rs of cardiac vagal control functioning\u2014Resting, reactivity, and recovery. Front. Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2018.00458"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borges, U., Lobinger, B., Javelle, F., Watson, M., Mosley, E., and Laborde, S. (2021). Using slow-paced breathing to foster endurance, well-being, and sleep quality in athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.624655"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.35.4.339","article-title":"The tale of hearts and reason: The influence of mood on decision making","volume":"35","author":"Laborde","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2014.05.003","article-title":"Is the ability to keep your mind sharp under pressure reflected in your heart? Evidence for the neurophysiological bases of decision reinvestment","volume":"100C","author":"Laborde","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2014.11.036","article-title":"The relationship between working memory, reinvestment, and heart rate variability","volume":"139","author":"Laborde","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2017.05.030","article-title":"The contribution of coping related variables and cardiac vagal activity on the performance of a dart throwing task under pressure","volume":"179","author":"Mosley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mosley, E., Laborde, S., and Kavanagh, E. (2018). The contribution of coping-related variables and cardiac vagal activity on prone rifle shooting performance under pressure. J. Psychophysiol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2018.09.007"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2018.09.007","article-title":"Coping related variables, cardiac vagal activity and working memory performance under pressure","volume":"191","author":"Mosley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borges, U., Laborde, S., and Raab, M. (2019). Influence of transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation on cardiac vagal activity: Not different from sham stimulation and no effect of stimulation intensity. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0223848"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borges, U., Knops, L., Laborde, S., Klatt, S., and Raab, M. (2020). Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation may enhance only specific aspects of the core executive functions. A randomized crossover trial. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00523"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borges, U., Pfannenstiel, M., Tsukahara, J., Laborde, S., Klatt, S., and Raab, M. (2021). Transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation via tragus or cymba conchae: Are its psychophysiological effects dependent on the stimulation area?. Int. J. Psychophysiol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2021.01.003"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., Kauschke, D., Hosang, T.J., Javelle, F., and Mosley, E. (2020). Performance habits: A framework proposal. Front. Psychol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01815"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laborde, S., and Allen, M.S. (2016). Comment: Measurement and the interpretation of trait EI research. Emot. Rev.","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073916650498"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.11.061","article-title":"Trait emotional intelligence questionnaire full-form and short-form versions: Links with sport participation frequency and duration and type of sport practiced","volume":"108","author":"Laborde","year":"2017","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/12\/6630\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:19:38Z","timestamp":1760163578000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/12\/6630"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18126630"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18126630","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,20]]}}}