{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,6]],"date-time":"2025-12-06T17:12:57Z","timestamp":1765041177076,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,17]],"date-time":"2021-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631836800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Overcrowding can increase the risk of disease transmission, such as that of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), within United States prisons. The number of COVID-19 cases among prisoners is higher than that among the general public, and this disparity is further increased for prisoners of color. This report uses the example case of the COVID-19 pandemic to observe prison conditions and preventive efforts, address racial disparities for people of color, and guide structural improvements for sustaining inmate health during a pandemic in four select states: California, New York, Illinois, and Florida. To curb the further spread of COVID-19 among prisoners and their communities, safe public health practices must be implemented including providing personal protective equipment (PPE) and testing of staff and inmates, disseminating culturally and language appropriate information regarding the pandemic and preventive precautions, introducing social distancing measures, and ensuring adequate resources to safely reintegrate released prisoners into their communities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18189790","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,17]],"date-time":"2021-09-17T21:23:29Z","timestamp":1631913809000},"page":"9790","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Incarceration and COVID-19: Recommendations to Curb COVID-19 Disease Transmission in Prison Facilities and Surrounding Communities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Lauren Jeanne","family":"Natoli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Division, AIDS Healthcare Foundation, Los Angeles, CA 90046, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kathy Linh","family":"Vu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Division, AIDS Healthcare Foundation, Los Angeles, CA 90046, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adam Carl","family":"Sukhija-Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Division, AIDS Healthcare Foundation, Los Angeles, CA 90046, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Whitney","family":"Engeran-Cordova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Public Health Division, AIDS Healthcare Foundation, Los Angeles, CA 90046, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gabriel","family":"Maldonado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TruEvolution, Riverside, CA 92501, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Scott","family":"Galvin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City of North Miami City Council, Miami, FL 33161, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Arroyo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Rehabilitation Oversight Commission, California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, Sacramento, CA 95811, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cynthia","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine & College of Science and Health, Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science, Los Angeles, CA 90059, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1047","DOI":"10.1086\/521910","article-title":"Infection Control in Jails and Prisons","volume":"45","author":"Bick","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.12528","article-title":"COVID-19 Cases and Deaths in Federal and State Prisons","volume":"324","author":"Saloner","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"unstructured":"Council on Criminal Justice (2020, December 29). COVID-19 in U.S. State and Federal Prisons: December 2020 Update. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.ymaws.com\/counciloncj.org\/resource\/resmgr\/covid_commission\/COVID-19_in_State_and_Federa.pdf.","key":"ref_3"},{"unstructured":"(2020, August 30). Water Sanitation Hygiene: What Are the Health Risks Related to Overcrowding?. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/water_sanitation_health\/emergencies\/qa\/emergencies_qa9\/en\/.","key":"ref_4"},{"unstructured":"Zeng, Z. (2020, August 30). Jail Inmates in 2018, Available online: https:\/\/www.bjs.gov\/content\/pub\/pdf\/ji18.pdf.","key":"ref_5"},{"unstructured":"California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (2020, August 30). San Quentin State Prison Response, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdcr.ca.gov\/covid19\/san-quentin-state-prison-response\/#ACS.","key":"ref_6"},{"unstructured":"California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (2020, August 30). Population COVID-19 Tracking, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdcr.ca.gov\/covid19\/population-status-tracking\/.","key":"ref_7"},{"unstructured":"UCLA Law (2021, January 05). COVID-19 behind Bars Data Project. Available online: https:\/\/docs.google.com\/spreadsheets\/d\/1X6uJkXXS-O6eePLxw2e4JeRtM41uPZ2eRcOA_HkPVTk\/edit#gid=1197647409.","key":"ref_8"},{"unstructured":"New York Department of Corrections and Community Supervision (2021, January 05). DOCCS COVID-19 Report, Available online: https:\/\/doccs.ny.gov\/doccs-covid-19-report.","key":"ref_9"},{"unstructured":"Einbinder, N., and Wang, A. (2020, July 31). In New York Prisons, Inmates Say They\u2019re Punished for Trying to Protect Themselves from Coronavirus. Business Insider. 23 July 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/in-new-york-prisons-inmates-punished-for-trying-to-avoid-coronavirus-2020-7.","key":"ref_10"},{"unstructured":"Florida Department of Corrections (2021, January 05). COVID-19 Information. Available online: http:\/\/www.dc.state.fl.us\/comm\/covid-19.html#stats.","key":"ref_11"},{"unstructured":"Lorenz, M. (2020, August 30). Spread of COVID-19 inside Prisoner behind Spike of Baker County Cases. Available online: https:\/\/www.news4jax.com\/news\/local\/2020\/08\/07\/spread-of-covid-19-inside-prison-behind-spike-of-baker-county-cases\/.","key":"ref_12"},{"unstructured":"Illinois Department of Corrections (2021, January 05). COVID-19 Reponses, Confirmed Cases, Available online: https:\/\/www2.illinois.gov\/idoc\/facilities\/Pages\/Covid19Response.aspx.","key":"ref_13"},{"unstructured":"The Marshall Project (2020, December 30). A State-by-State Look at Coronavirus in Prisons. Available online: https:\/\/www.themarshallproject.org\/2020\/05\/01\/a-state-by-state-look-at-coronavirus-in-prisons.","key":"ref_14"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2020.00652","article-title":"Incarceration and Its Disseminations: COVID-19 Pandemic Lessons from Chicago\u2019s Cook County Jail","volume":"39","author":"Reinhart","year":"2020","journal-title":"Health Aff."},{"unstructured":"Bloch, E. (2021, February 23). Coronavirus: Jacksonville Sheriff\u2019s Office Says 386 Inmates Now Positive for COVID-19. Available online: https:\/\/www.jacksonville.com\/story\/news\/local\/2020\/07\/17\/coronavirus-jacksonville-sheriffrsquos-office-says-386-inmates-now-positive-for-covid-19\/41724899\/.","key":"ref_16"},{"unstructured":"Mendoza, A. (2020, July 30). Forgotten: Stateville Inmates Warn of Rising COVID-19 Outbreak Behind Bars. The Chicago Reporter. Available online: https:\/\/www.chicagoreporter.com\/forgotten-stateville-inmates-warn-of-rising-covid-19-outbreak-behind-bars\/.","key":"ref_17"},{"unstructured":"Lewis, R. (2020, August 30). California\u2019s Post-Prison Chaos: Thousands Released Early, Including Many with Coronavirus. Available online: https:\/\/calmatters.org\/justice\/2020\/08\/california-prisons-early-release-coronavirus\/.","key":"ref_18"},{"unstructured":"California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (2020, July 10). CDCR Announces Additional Actions to Reduce Population and Maximize Space Systemwide to Address COVID-19, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdcr.ca.gov\/news\/2020\/07\/10\/cdcr-announces-additional-actions-to-reduce-population-and-maximize-space-systemwide-to-address-covid-19\/.","key":"ref_19"},{"unstructured":"Winton, R. (2020, August 30). Amid COVID-19, California Releases Some Inmates Doing Time for Murder. Advocates Push to Free More. Available online: https:\/\/www.latimes.com\/california\/story\/2020-08-09\/covid-19-california-releases-violent-crime-murder-prisoners.","key":"ref_20"},{"unstructured":"Rivera, A. (2020, August 30). Illinois Failing Key Pillar of COVID-19 Response: Prisons Remain Crowded While Releases Exacerbate Racial Inequity. Available online: https:\/\/restorejustice.org\/early-releases-exacerbate-racial-inequity\/.","key":"ref_21"},{"unstructured":"Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General (2021, January 05). The First Step Act of 2018: Risk and Needs Assessment System, Available online: https:\/\/nij.ojp.gov\/sites\/g\/files\/xyckuh171\/files\/media\/document\/the-first-step-act-of-2018-risk-and-needs-assessment-system_1.pdf.","key":"ref_22"},{"unstructured":"State of California Office of the Inspector General (2021, April 01). COVID-19 Review Series: Part Three, Available online: https:\/\/www.oig.ca.gov\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/OIG-COVID-19-Review-Series-Part-3-%E2%80%93-Transfer-of-Patients-from-CIM.pdf.","key":"ref_23"},{"unstructured":"Schnepel, K.T. (2021, January 05). COVID-19 in U.S. State and Federal Prisons. Available online: https:\/\/build.neoninspire.com\/counciloncj\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/96\/2021\/07\/FINAL_Schnepel_Design.pdf.","key":"ref_24"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/18\/9790\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:01:09Z","timestamp":1760166069000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/18\/18\/9790"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,17]]},"references-count":24,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph18189790"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph18189790","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1660-4601"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,17]]}}}